Polyglot Club WIKI - User contributions [en]

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Grammar/Abbreviation-vs-acronym

2026-02-20T09:28:43Z

Marianth:

== abbreviation vs acronym ==
An abbreviation is any shortened form of a word or phrase (e.g., "Dr." for Doctor, "appt." for appointment). An acronym is a specific type of abbreviation formed from the first letters of a phrase and pronounced as a new word (e.g., "NASA," "LASER"). All acronyms are abbreviations, but not all abbreviations are acronyms.

'''Key Differences and Details:'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|'''Abbreviation:''' A general term for any shortened word or phrase. They often include periods (e.g., "etc.", "vol.").
|-
|
|-
|'''Acronym:''' A type of abbreviation pronounced as a word. Examples:
'''NASA''' (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

'''ASAP''' (As soon as possible)

'''LASER''' (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

'''Initialism''' (A subtype of acronym): An abbreviation formed from initial letters but pronounced as individual letters (e.g., "FBI," "DNA," "HTML").

|-
|'''Key Distinction:''' Acronyms are spoken as words, while initialisms are spoken as letters.
|}

<youtube> shorts/nyVJSq4x8X0 </youtube>

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Grammar/Abbreviation-vs-acronym

2026-02-20T09:27:29Z

Marianth:

== abbreviation vs acronym ==
An abbreviation is any shortened form of a word or phrase (e.g., "Dr." for Doctor, "appt." for appointment). An acronym is a specific type of abbreviation formed from the first letters of a phrase and pronounced as a new word (e.g., "NASA," "LASER"). All acronyms are abbreviations, but not all abbreviations are acronyms.

'''Key Differences and Details:'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|'''Abbreviation:''' A general term for any shortened word or phrase. They often include periods (e.g., "etc.", "vol.").
|-
|
|-
|'''Acronym:''' A type of abbreviation pronounced as a word. Examples:
'''NASA''' (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

'''ASAP''' (As soon as possible)

'''LASER''' (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

'''Initialism''' (A subtype of acronym): An abbreviation formed from initial letters but pronounced as individual letters (e.g., "FBI," "DNA," "HTML").

|-
|'''Key Distinction:''' Acronyms are spoken as words, while initialisms are spoken as letters.
|}

<youtube>shorts/nyVJSq4x8X0</youtube>

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Grammar/Abbreviation-vs-acronym

2026-02-20T09:23:58Z

Marianth:

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Grammar/Abbreviation-vs-acronym

2026-02-20T09:16:16Z

Marianth: Nouvelle leçon

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Archaeological-Site-of-Aigai

2026-02-08T10:54:35Z

Marianth:

https://www.shutterstock.com/el/image-photo/vergina-imathia-macedonia-greece-may-5-2368070665?trackingId=b3fe5b5b-8962-405b-b838-f55ab2610638&listId=searchResults

== Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina) ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient first capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, was discovered in the 19th century near Vergina, in northern Greece. The most important remains are the monumental palace, lavishly decorated with mosaics and painted stuccoes, and the burial ground with more than 300 tumuli, some of which date from the 11th century B.C. One of the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus is identified as that of Philip II, who conquered all the Greek cities, paving the way for his son Alexander and the expansion of the Hellenistic world.

== Outstanding Universal Value-Brief synthesis ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient royal capital of Macedon, was discovered in the 19th century. It is located between the modern villages of Palatitsia and Vergina, in Northern Greece (Region of Hemathia). At Aigai was rooted the royal dynasty of the Temenids, the family of Philip II and Alexander the Great. The Archaeological Site of Aigai, containing an urban center – the oldest and most important in Northern Greece – and several surrounded settlements, is defined by the rivers Haliakmon (W and N), Askordos (E), and the Pierian Mountains (S). Aigai provides important information about the culture, history and society of the ancient Macedonians, the Greek border tribe that preserved age-old traditions and carried Greek culture to the outer limits of the ancient world. The most important, already excavated, archaeological remains of the site are: the monumental palace (ca 340 BC), which was the biggest and one of the most impressive buildings of classical Greece, the theatre, the sanctuaries of Eukleia and the Mother of the Gods, the city walls, the royal necropolis, containing more than 500 tumuli, dating from the 11th to 2nd century BC. Three royal burial clusters have been already excavated. Twelve monumental temple-shaped tombs are known. Among them is the tomb of Euridice, mother of Philip II and the unlooted tombs of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, and his grandson, Alexander IV, which have been discovered in 1977-8 and made a worldwide sensation. The quality of the tombs themselves and their grave-goods places Aigai among the most important archaeological sites in Europe.

Criterion (i): Both the cemetery and the city contain original and unique historical, artistic and aesthetic achievements of the late classical art of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance, such as the architectural form of the royal palace and the magnificent wall paintings of the so-called Macedonian tombs, as well as objects such as the ivory portrait and miniature art, metal, gold and silver work. Many of these achievements were created by great artists of ancient Greece, such as Leochares and Nikomachos.

Criterion (iii): Τhe site represents an exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from the classical city state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents.

== Integrity ==
The World Heritage property contains within its boundaries all the key attributes that convey its Outstanding Universal Value. A zone of absolute protection, prohibiting any building activity, and containing the ancient city, its cemeteries and a Bronze-Age mount, ensures its integrity. A wider protection zone, with building restrictions, ensures more the integrity of site. Aigai provides some of the most complete, whole and intact ancient monuments, such as the palace and the sanctuaries, the so-called Macedonian tombs and complete specimens of rare pieces of ancient art. The archaeological research in the city and cemeteries in combination with the restoration projects running in the Palace and the Royal Necropolis, according to the site’s master plan and the national and international standards and regulations, have multiple and positive impact for the documentation and protection of the site. The natural setting, (semi-mountainous landscape, rivers, flora), which corresponds to the ancient urban territory and the cultural remains of the Macedonian royal center, emphasizes the integrity of the property.

== Authenticity ==
The Archaeological Site of Aigai, with its artistic and architectural remains testifies its authenticity, in terms of form, materials and setting. It is generally accepted that excavation, especially of earthen structures and deposits, is necessarily an act of destruction. The original Great Tumulus is therefore no longer in existence, and has been simulated in the cover structure. The protective shelter has been constructed in order to protect and ensure the authenticity of the royal tombs. Its tumulus-shaped form and the technical specifications are in complete harmony and respect to the monuments. However, the interiors of the tombs are entirely authentic, with only minimal modern interventions in order to preserve their continued stability. Elsewhere on the site (e.g. the palace) the remains are entirely authentic.

The subterranean temple-shaped tombs are amongst the best-preserved examples on the use of colour in ancient architecture, and their discovery revealed for the first time the intact façade of an ancient Greek building. The complete and emblematic form of the royal palace, based on philosophical, political and architectural notions (archetype of peristyle palatial buildings), served in antiquity and modern times as the prototype and a visual statement of the notion of the enlightened kingship. Some of the royal tombs have been sheltered. The protection of the monuments and their natural environment as a unit ensures the authentic context of the city and its cemeteries.

== Protection and management requirements ==
The property is a serial site with two components surrounded by an extensive buffer zone. It is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs, through the Ephorate of Antiquities of Hemathia, its competent Regional Service. The Archaeological Site of Aigai is protected under the provisions of Law No. 3028/2002 on the “Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in general”. Τhe protected Archaeological Site of Aigai (Ministerial Decree 35117/2019/2.8.95) is located inside a designated area of outstanding natural beauty (Decree of the Minister of Macedonia and Thrace No. 8383/92/28.1.1993). A zone of absolute protection has been established, covering the ancient city, the necropolis, and all the surrounding area within which antiquities have been discovered, as well as a buffer zone. Development pressures to the property are addressed by the implementation of the aforementioned legal framework and the constant control of the competent Ephorate.

A complete master plan, concerning the protection, restoration, visiting and information, in order to maintain the Outstanding Universal Value of the site in the long term, is approved by the Central Archaeological Council/Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs.

The project of the restoration, implantation and embellishment of the Royal Cemetery, funded by the EU, is completed and the area is open to the public, while the same project for the Royal Palace is in progress and the monument is partly accessible to the visitors. The new building of the Multi-Centre Museum of Aigai, also funded by the EU, is already constructed, and it will be open to the public as soon as the exhibition is completed. The Archaeological Site of Aigai has an ongoing systematic excavation. Furthermore, many conservation studies, archaeometric research and architectural restoration studies have been completed for the better understanding of the monuments, as well as the dissemination of historical and archaeological data. The funding of the projects comes from national and European resources.

The cluster of the royal tombs is protected by a tumulus-shaped shelter, the present Museum of the Royal Tombs at Aigai. All the items found in the cluster, the architectural buildings, wall paintings of the tombs are displayed in a secure and controlled environment. It constitutes a particularly original example of burial monuments sheltered in a modern underground museum.

The worldwide impact of the antiquities discovered in Aigai resulted in a massive turnout of visitors, for whom special facilities have been provided. The digital museum, entitled ‘’Alexander the Great: From Aigai to Oikoumene’’, is under construction. It will be based at Aigai, the ancient capital of Macedon and it will be interactively connected with others sites, museums and institutions worldwide and create an archaeological network showing the universal value of the site.

Source : UNESCO

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Multiple-languages/Culture/Traditional-Literatures:-Philosophies-and-Religions

2026-02-08T09:48:04Z

Marianth: certaines corrections

{{Reading-sites-menu}}

This page has cousins:
* [[Language/Multiple-languages/Culture/Religions-and-Folklores]]
* [[Language/Multiple-languages/Culture/Concepts-in-Philosophies-and-Religions]]

In progress

== Categories ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!work type
!explanation
!philosophy/religion
|-
|
* 'Acta [lat]
* ''Práxeis'' Πράξεις [ell]
|Acts: recounts of the lives and works of the apostles of Jesus
|
* Christianity
|-
|
* ''al-ḥadīṯ'' الحديث [arb]
|oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle
|
* Islam
|-
|
* ''al-ḥadīṯ al-qudsī'' الحديث القدسي [arb]
|sacred report: compendium of sayings attributed to Muḥammad
|
* Islam
|-
|
* ''apokalípsa'' אפוקליפסה [heb]
* ''apokálupsis'' ἀποκάλυψις [grc]
* ''apokálypsi'' αποκάλυψη [ell]
* Apocalypsis [lat]
|Apocalypse: books where a supernatural being reveals cosmic mysteries or the future to a human intermediary
|
* Judaism
* Christianity
* Islam
|-
|
* ''diathḗkē kainḗ'' Καινή Διαθήκη [grc]
|New Covenant: biblical interpretation
|
* Christianity
|-
|
* ''euangélion'' Εὐαγγέλιον [grc]
* ēvangelium [lat]
|Gospel: books in which the message was reported
|
* Christianity
|-
|
* ''jīng'' 經经 [cmn]
|originally classics and authoritative texts; generalised for religious texts
|
* Ruism
* Daoism
* Buddhism
|-
|
* ''Kainḕ Diathḗkē'' Καινὴ Διαθήκη [grc]
* ''Kainí Diathíki'' Καινή Διαθήκη [ell]
* Novum Testāmentum [lat]
|New Testament: second division of Christian canon
|
* Christianity
|-
|
* ''Palaià Diathḗkē'' Παλαιὰ Διαθήκη [grc]
* ''Palaiá Diathíki'' Παλαιά Διαθήκη [ell]
* Vetus Testāmentum [lat]
|Old Testament: first division of Christian canon, based primarily upon Tanaḵ
|
* Christianity
|-
|
* symbolum [lat]
* ''súmbolon'' σύμβολον [grc]
* ''sýmvolo'' σύμβολο [ell]
|Creed: statement of the shared beliefs of a community which sumerises its core tenets
|
* Christianity
|-
|
* ''Upaniṣad'' उपनिषद् [san]
|texts that document transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions
|
* Hinduism
|-
|
* ''Vēdaḥ'' वेदः [san]
|ancient religious texts
|
* Vedic religion
* Hinduism
|}

== Objects ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!work
!translation of work
!philosophy/religion
!time of origin
!text or audio
|-
|
|Epic of Gilgamesh
|
* Mesopotamian religion
|between 2100 BC and 1200 BC
|
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh Wikisource]
|-
|ऋग्वेद
''Ṛgveda''
|Knowledge of the Verse
|
* Hinduism
|between 1500 BC and 1000 BC
|
* [mul] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [mul] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83 Wikisource]
* [san] [https://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_veda/ doc_veda]
|-
|''jmj dwꜣt''
|That Which Is In the Afterworld
|
* Egyptian religion
|before 1425 BC
|
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/egy/bat/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|
|Book of Caverns
|
* Egyptian religion
|13<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
|-
|
|Book of Gates
|
* Egyptian religion
|before 1295 BC
|
* [eng] [https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/bookgates/ Ancient Egypt Online]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/egy/gate/ Sacred-Texts]
|-
|''rw n(y)w prt m hrw(w)''
|Papyrus of Ani
|
* Egyptian religion
|c. 1250 BC
|
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Papyrus_of_Ani Wikisource]
|-
|सामवेद
''Sāmaveda''
|Knowledge of the Song
|
* Hinduism
|between 1200 BC and 900 BC
|
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/sv.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [san] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83 Wikisource]
|-
|अथर्ववेद
''Atharvaveda''
|Knowledge of Átharvan
|
* Hinduism
|between 1200 BC and 900 BC
|
* [mul] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe42/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/av/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|यजुर्वेद
''Yajurveda''
|Knowledge of the Worship
|
* Hinduism
|between 1200 BC and 800 BC
|
* [san] [http://www.sanskritweb.net/yajurveda/ Sanskriptweb]
* [san] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/yv/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|儀禮
''Yí Lǐ''
|Ceremonies and Rites
|
* Ruism
|11<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [och] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%84%80%E7%A6%AE Wikisource]
* [och] [https://ctext.org/yili 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|चरकसंहिता
''Carakasaṃhitā''
|Compendium of Charaka
|
* Hinduism
|1<sup>st</sup> millenium BC
|
|-
|易經
''Yì Jīng''
|Classic of Changes
|
* Ruism
|late 9<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E6%98%93 Wikisource]
* [mul] [https://ctext.org/book-of-changes 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [och] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25501 Project Gutenberg]
* [och] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/125 數位經典]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/ich/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|मुक्तिका
''Muktikā''
|Deliverance
|
* Hinduism
|8<sup>th</sup> century BC – 3<sup>rd</sup> century BC
|
* [san] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.celextel.org/upanishads/ Vedata Spiritual Library]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">תנ״ך</div>
''Tanaḵ''
|Law-Prophets-Writings
|
* Judaism
|8<sup>th</sup> century BC – 1<sup>st</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://mechon-mamre.org/indexhe.htm מכון ממרא]
* [mul] [https://www.sefaria.org.il/texts/Tanakh ספריא]
* [hbo] [https://sacred-texts.com/bib/tan/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-tanakh-full-text Jewish Virtual Library]
* [eng] [https://jps.org/download-the-tanakh-1917-translation/ The Jewish Publication Society]
|-
|Ἰλιάς
''Iliás''
|Poem about Ilion
|
* Greek religion
|c. 8<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/705 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://librivox.org/author/765 LibriVox]
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%AC%CF%82 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.literatureproject.com/iliad/index.htm Literature Project]
* [eng] [https://www.owleyes.org/text/iliad Olw Eyes]
* [eng] [https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/homer/the-iliad/william-cullen-bryant Standard Ebooks]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Homer/iliad.html The Internet Classics Archive]
|-
|Οδύσσεια
''Odýsseia''
|Story of Odysseus
|
* Greek religion
|c. 8<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/705 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://librivox.org/author/765 LibriVox]
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CE%B4%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.owleyes.org/text/odyssey Owl Eyes]
* [eng] [https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/homer/the-odyssey/william-cullen-bryant Standard Ebooks]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Homer/odyssey.html The Internet Classics Archive]
|-
|Θεογονία
''Theogoníā''
|Genealogy of Gods
|
* Greek religion
|between 730 BC and 700 BC
|
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B5%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1 Wikisource]
|-
|詩經
''Shī Jīng''
|Classic of Poetry
|
* Ruism
|7<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [och] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%A9%A9%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [och] [https://sacred-texts.com/cfu/sbe03/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [och] [https://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=Chinese/uvaGenText/tei/shi_jing/AnoShih.xml University of Virginia Library]
* [och] [https://ctext.org/book-of-poetry 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [och] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/498 數位經典]
|-
|रामायणम्
''Rāmāyaṇam''
|Rama's Journey
|
* Hinduism
|7<sup>th</sup> century BC – 3<sup>rd</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://readramayana.org/ Read Ramayana]
* [mul] [https://www.valmikiramayan.net/ Valamiki Ramayana]
* [mul] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [mul] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Wikisource]
|-
|न्यायसूत्र
''Nyāyasūtra''
|Principles of Nyāya
|
* Nyāya
|between 6<sup>th</sup> century BC and 2<sup>nd</sup> century BC
|
|-
|वैशेषिकसूत्र
''Vaiśeṣikasūtra''
|Principles of the Characteristic
|
* Vaiśeṣika
|between 6<sup>th</sup> century BC and 2<sup>nd</sup> century BC
|
|-
|墨子
''Mòzǐ''
|Master Mò
|
* Mohism
|between 5<sup>th</sup> century and 3<sup>rd</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/24240 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%A2%A8%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/mozi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|孫子兵法
''Sūnzǐ Bīngfǎ''
|Master Sūn's Military Methods
|
* School of Military
|before 496 BC
|
* [mul] [https://librivox.org/author/3534 LibriVox]
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/4349 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%AD%AB%E5%AD%90%E5%85%B5%E6%B3%95 Wikisource]
* [mul] [https://ctext.org/art-of-war 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [eng] [https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/sun-tzu/the-art-of-war/lionel-giles Standard Ebooks]
* [eng] [https://suntzusaid.com/ SunTzuSaid.com]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Tzu/artwar.html The Internet Classics Archive]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/1777 數位經典]
|-
|孟子
''Mèngzǐ''
|Master Mèng
|
* Ruism
|4<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/works-of-mencius/ Ocean 2.0]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/mengzi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/23 數位經典]
* [eng] [http://nothingistic.org/library/mencius/ nothingistic.org]
|-
|孝經
''Xiào Jīng''
|Classic of Filial Piety
|
* Ruism
|c. 4<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%AD%9D%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/24232 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://scripturetw.com/articles/xiaojing 台灣經文網]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/xiao-jing 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|山海經
''Shān Hǎi Jīng''
|Classic of Mountains and Seas
|
* Chinese folk religion
|4<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25288 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1%E6%B5%B7%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/shan-hai-jing 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|道德經
''Dào Dé Jīng''
|Classic of the Way and Virtue
|
* Philosophical Daoism
|4<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://librivox.org/author/627 LibriVox]
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2427 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E5%BE%B7%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [mul] [https://ctext.org/dao-de-jing 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://scripturetw.com/articles/daodejing 台灣經文網]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/417 數位經典]
* [eng] [http://nothingistic.org/library/laotzu/ nothingistic.org]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/tao-te-ching_lao-tzu/ Oceans 2.0]
* [eng] [http://www.acmuller.net/con-dao/daodejing.html Resources for East Asian Language and Thought]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Lao/taote.html The Internet Classics Archive]
* [eng] [https://www.online-literature.com/standalone-books/tao-teh-king/ The Literature Network]
|-
|鬼谷子
''Guǐgǔzǐ''
|Master Guǐgǔ
|
* School of Diplomacy
|4<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2373 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%AC%BC%E8%B0%B7%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/gui-gu-zi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|列子
''Lièzǐ''
|Master Liè
|
* Philosophical Daoism
|4<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%88%97%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7341 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/liezi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/406 數位經典]
|-
|司馬法
''Sīmǎ Fǎ''
|Methods of the Sima
|
* School of Military
|4<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25167 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E9%A6%AC%E6%B3%95 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/si-ma-fa 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|春秋左氏傳
''Chūnqiū Zuǒshì Zhuàn''
|Spring and Autumn Annals – Commentary of Zuǒ
|
* Ruism
|4<sup>th</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%B7%A6%E6%B0%8F%E5%82%B3 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/chun-qiu-zuo-zhuan 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|Συμπόσιον
''Sumpósion''
|Drinking Party
|
* Platoism
|c. 385 – 370 BC
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/93 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD_(%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%AC%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD) Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/599 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/cla/plato/symposiu.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Plato/symposium.html The Internet Classics Archive]
|-
|吳子
''Wúzǐ''
|Master Wú
|
* School of Military
|before 381 BC
|
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%90%B3%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wu-zi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|申子
''Shēnzǐ''
|Master Shēn
|
* Legalism
|before 337 BC
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E7%94%B3%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/shen-bu-hai 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|Ὄργανον
''Organon''
|Instrument
|
* Peripatetic school
|beofre 322 BC
|
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%B3%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AD%CE%B1%CF%82:%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%82#%CE%9B%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC_%CE%AE_%CE%8C%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BD Wikisource]
|-
|Μεταφυσικά
''Metaphusiká''
|Metaphysics
|
* Peripatetic school
|before 322 BC
|
* [mul] [https://librivox.org/author/602 LibriVox]
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%86%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.html The Internet Classics Archive]
|-
|Ἠθικὰ Νικομάχεια
''Ēthika Nikomacheia''
|Nicomachean Ethics
|
* Peripatetic school-Aristotelis
|before 322 BC
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2747 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC_%CE%9D%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AC%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/602 LibriVox]
* [eng] [http://nothingistic.org/library/aristotle/nicomachean/ nothingistic.org]
* [eng] [https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle/nicomachean-ethics/f-h-peters Standard Ebooks]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html The Internet Classics Archive]
|-
|禮記
''Lǐ Jì''
|Book of Rites
|
* Ruism
|before 3<sup>rd</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E7%A6%AE%E8%A8%98 Wikisource]
* [mul] [https://ctext.org/liji 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/320 數位經典]
|-
|爾雅
''Ěr Yǎ''
|Approaching what is Correct
|
* Ruism
|3<sup>rd</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51620 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E7%88%BE%E9%9B%85 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/er-ya 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/448 數位經典]
|-
|मीमांसासूत्र
''Mīmāṁsāsūtra''
|Principles of Mīmāṁsā
|
* Mimansa
|3<sup>rd</sup> century BC
|
|-
|韓非子
''Hán Fēi Zǐ''
|Master Hán Fēi
|
* Legalism
|3<sup>rd</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/24049 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%9F%93%E9%9D%9E%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/hanfeizi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|अर्थशास्त्रम्
''Arthaśāstram''
|Economics
|
* Hinduism
|between 3<sup>rd</sup> century BC and 3<sup>rd</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82 Wikisource]
|-
|महाभारतम्
''Mahābhāratam''
|Epic of Bhā́rata
|
* Hinduism
|between 3<sup>rd</sup> century BC and 4<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Wikisource]
* [san] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/maha/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|Φαίδων
''Phaídōn''
|Phaídōn
|
* Platoism
|before 348 BC
|
* [mul] [https://www2.hf.uio.no/polyglotta/index.php?page=record&&vid=478&mid=805227&view=record Bibliotheca Polyglotta Graeca et Latina]
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/93 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%B4%CF%89%CE%BD Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/cla/plato/phaedo.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/plato/dialogues/benjamin-jowett Standard Ebooks]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Plato/phaedo.html The Internet Classics Archive]
|-
|Πολιτεία
''Polīteíā''
|Republic
|
* Platoism
|before 332 BC
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/93 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/599 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/cla/plato/rep/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.html The Internet Classics Archive]
|-
|Πολιτικά
''Politiká''
|Politics
|
* Peripatetic school
|before 322 BC
|
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC Wikisource]
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2747 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/602 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.html The Internet Classics Archive]
|-
|孫臏兵法
''Sūn Bìn Bīngfǎ''
|Sūn Bìn's Military Methods
|
* School of Military
|before 316 BC
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%AD%AB%E8%87%8F%E5%85%B5%E6%B3%95 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=331312 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|商君書
''Shāng Jūn Shū''
|Book of Lord Shāng
|
* Legalism
|between 300 BC and 230 BC
|
* [mul] [https://ctext.org/shang-jun-shu 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2452 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%95%86%E5%90%9B%E6%9B%B8 Wikisource]
|-
|莊子
''Zhuāngzǐ''
|Master Zhuāng
|
* Philosophical Daoism
|before 286 BC
|
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%8E%8A%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [mul] [https://ctext.org/zhuangzi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/283 數位經典]
* [eng] [http://nothingistic.org/library/chuangtzu/ nothingistic.org]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/59709 Project Gutenberg]
|-
|慎子
''Shènzǐ''
|Master Shèn
|
* Legalism
|before 275 BC
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%85%8E%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/shenzi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|Κύριαι Δόξαι
''Kū́riai Dóxai''
|Principal Doctrines
|
* Epicureanism
|before 270 BC
|
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%B9_%CE%94%CF%8C%CE%BE%CE%B1%CE%B9 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Browse/browse-Epicurus.html The Internet Classics Archive]
|-
|公孫龍子
''Gōngsūn Lóng Zǐ''
|Master Gōngsūn
|
* School of Names
|before 250 BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7216 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%AD%AB%E9%BE%8D%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/gongsunlongzi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|呂氏春秋
''Lǚshì Chūnqiū''
|Master Lǚ's Spring and Autumn Annals
|
* Syncretism
|c. 239 BC
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%91%82%E6%B0%8F%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/lv-shi-chun-qiu 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|荀子
''Xúnzǐ''
|Master Xún
|
* Ruism
|before 238 BC
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%8D%80%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/xunzi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/370 數位經典]
|-
|六韜
''Liù Tāo''
|Six Secret Teachings
|
* School of Military
|before 221 BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7340 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%85%AD%E9%9F%9C Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/liu-tao 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|尉繚子
''Wèi Liáo Zǐ''
|Master Wèi Liáo
|
* School of Military
|before 221 BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7219 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%B0%89%E7%B9%9A%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wei-liao-zi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|वेदान्तसूत्र
''Vedantasūtra''
|Vedanta Sūtra
|
* Vedānta
|c. 200 BC
|
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2412 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe48/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|周禮
''Zhōu Lǐ''
|Rites of Zhōu
|
* Ruism
|middle 2<sup>nd</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25263 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E7%A6%AE Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/rites-of-zhou 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|春秋公羊傳
''Chūnqiū Gōngyáng Zhuàn''
|Spring and Autumn Annals – Commentary of Gōngyáng
|
* Current Texts school
|2<sup>nd</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E5%85%AC%E7%BE%8A%E5%82%B3 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/gongyang-zhuan 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/1113 數位經典]
|-
|春秋穀梁傳
''Chūnqiū Gǔliáng Zhuàn''
|Spring and Autumn Annals – Commentary of Gǔliáng
|
* Ruism
|2<sup>nd</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%98%A5%E7%A7%8B%E7%A9%80%E6%A2%81%E5%82%B3 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/guliang-zhuan 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/1567 數位經典]
|-
|書經
''Shū Jīng''
|Classic of Documents
|
* Ruism
|before late 2<sup>nd</sup> century BC
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%B0%9A%E6%9B%B8 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/shang-shu 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/1169 數位經典]
|-
|論語
''Lún Yǔ''
|Selected Sayings
|
* Ruism
|before 140 BC
|
* [mul] [https://librivox.org/author/3104 LibriVox]
* [mul] [http://www.acmuller.net/con-dao/analects.html Resources for East Asian Language and Thought]
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AB%96%E8%AA%9E Wikisource]
* [mul] [https://ctext.org/analects 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/analects_confucius/ Ocean 2.0]
* [eng] [http://nothingistic.org/library/confucius/analects/ nothingistic.org]
* [eng] [https://www.online-literature.com/standalone-books/analects/ The Literature Network]
* [eng] [https://classics.mit.edu/Confucius/analects.html The Internet Classics Archive]
* [lzh] [https://www.confucius.org/main01.htm 孔學出版社]
* [lzh] [https://www.kongzilunyu.com/ 孔子《論語》]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/2 數位經典]
|-
|淮南子
''Huáinánzǐ''
|Huáinán Masters
|
* Syncretism
|before 139 BC
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/24059 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%B7%AE%E5%8D%97%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/huainanzi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|''Tipiṭaka''
|Three Baskets
|
* Theravāda
|1<sup>st</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://siongui.github.io/pali-text-collection/ Pāli Texts Collection]
* [pli] [https://tipitaka.org/ Pāḷi Tipiṭaka]
* [lzh] [https://sutra.mobi/ Nikaya]
|-
|戰國策
''Zhànguó Cè''
|Strategies of the Warring States
|
* School of Diplomacy
|before 6 BC
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%88%B0%E5%9C%8B%E7%AD%96%E9%BB%83%E4%B8%95%E7%83%88%E6%9C%AD%E8%A8%98 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/zhan-guo-ce 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://www.chineseclassic.com/content/1176 數位經典]
|-
|De rerum natura
|On the Nature of Things
|
* Epicureanism
|1<sup>st</sup> century BC
|
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_rerum_natura_(Titus_Lucretius_Carus) Wikisource]
* [lat] [https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/lucretius.html The Latin Library]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/785 Project Gutenberg]
|-
|Fasti
|Calendar
|
* Roman religion
|8
|
* [eng] [https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/Fastihome.php Poetry in Translation]
* [eng] [https://www.theoi.com/Text/OvidFasti1.html Theoi Project]
* [lat] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8738 Project Gutenberg]
* [lat] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Fasti Wikisource]
|-
|Metamorphoseon
|Transformations
|
* Roman religion
|8
|
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Metamorphoses_(Ovidius) Wikisource]
|-
|三略
''Sān Lüè''
|Three Strategies
|
* School of Military
|before 9
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7218 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E7%95%A5 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/three-strategies 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|षट्खण्डागम
''Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama''
|Scripture in Six Parts
|
* Digambara
|1<sup>st</sup> century
|
|-
|''Sukhāvatīvyūhaḥsūtra''
|(Longer) Principles of Approaching the Blissful Land
|
* Pure Land school
|between 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://www.pure-land-buddhism.com/pure-land-sutras Pure Land Buddhism]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/longer-sukhavati-vyuha/ Ocean 2.0]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/bud/sbe49/sbe4924.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [https://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/BDK/bdk_search.php?md=normal&num=B0360 BDK英訳大蔵経]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0360_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25498 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E9%87%8F%E5%A3%BD%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://www.book.bfnn.org/books/0089.htm 般若文海]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=465109 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|''Vimuttimagga''
|Path of Freedom
|
* Theravāda
|between 1<sup>st</sup> and 2<sup>nd</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://www.bps.lk/library-search-select.php?id=bp207h Buddhist Publication Society]
* [eng] [https://www.buddhism.hku.hk/publication-post/the-path-to-freedom-vimuttimagga/ 香港大學佛學研究中心]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/N0035 CBETA]
|-
|मनुस्मृति
''Manusmṛti''
|Laws of Manu
|
* Hinduism
|between 1<sup>st</sup> and 3<sup>rd</sup> century
|
|-
|''Sukhāvatīvyūhaḥsūtra''
|(Shorter) Principles of Approaching the Blissful Land
|
* Pure Land school
|before 100
|
* [mul] [https://www.pure-land-buddhism.com/pure-land-sutras Pure Land Buddhism]
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Shorter_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.cttbusa.org/amitabha/amitabha.htm City of Ten Thousand Buddhas]
* [eng] [https://www.lapislazulitexts.com/tripitaka/T0366-LL-sukhavativyuha/ Lapis Lazuli Texts]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/shorter-sukhavati-vyuha/ Ocean 2.0]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/bud/sbe49/sbe4927.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [https://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/BDK/bdk_search.php?md=normal&num=B0366 BDK英訳大蔵経]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0366_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://www.book.bfnn.org/books/0086.htm 般若文海]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=40515 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|
|Hermetica Corpus
|
* Hermeticism
|between 1<sup>st</sup> century and 3<sup>rd</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://hermetic.com/texts/hermetica/index Hermetic Library]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/chr/herm/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [http://www.gnosis.org/library/hermet.htm The Gnostic Society Library]
|-
|मूलमध्यमकारिका
''Mūlamadhyamakakārikā''
|Root Verses on the Middle Way
|
* Mādhyamaka
|c. 150
|
* [san] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:%E9%BE%8D%E6%A8%B9%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://www.blisswisdom.org/publications/sutras/a/108 福智全球資訊網]
|-
|Τὰ εἰς ἑαυτόν
''Ta eis heauton''
|Things to One's Self
|
* Stoicism-MARCUS AURIL
|161 – 180
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/998 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B1_%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82_%CE%B5%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/marcus-aurelius/meditations/george-long Standard Ebooks]
|-
|*''Mahāyānaśraddhotpādaśāstra''
|Awakening of Faith in the Mahāyāna
|
* Mahāyāna
|2<sup>nd</sup> century
|
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T1666_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/zh/%E5%A4%A7%E4%B9%98%E8%B5%B7%E4%BF%A1%E8%AB%96 Wikisource]
|-
|Βιβλία
''Biblía''
|Books
|
* Christianity
|between late 2<sup>nd</sup> and early 3<sup>rd</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://andbible.org/ AndBible]
* [mul] [https://christos-c.com/bible/ bible-corpus]
* [mul] [https://www.biblica.com/resources/niv-audio-bible-listen-online-for-free/ Biblica]
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/subject/842 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://www.stepbible.org/ STEP Bible]
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible Wikisource]
* [mul] [https://www.wordproject.org/index.htm Wordproject]
* [mul] [https://www.bible.com/ YouVersion]
* [eng] [https://audiobible.com/bible/Bible.html Audio Bible]
* [eng] [https://www.biblestudytools.com/ Bible Study Tools]
* [eng] [https://www.biblehub.com/ Bible Hub]
* [eng] [https://www.globalgreyebooks.com/bible-king-james-ebook.html Global Grey]
* [eng] [https://www.online-literature.com/bible/bible.php The Literature Online]
* [fra] [https://emcitv.com/bible/ em-Bible]
|-
|सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्र
''Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra''
|Principles of the White Lotus of the True Dharma
|
* Tiāntāi school
|before 200
|
* [eng] [https://read.84000.co/translation/toh113.html 84000.co]
* [eng] [https://www.cttbusa.org/lotus/lotus_contents.asp.html City of Ten Thousand Buddhas]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/bud/lotus/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [https://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/BDK/bdk_search.php?md=normal&num=B0262 BDK英訳大蔵経]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0262_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://www.book.bfnn.org/books/0875.htm 般若文海]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%A6%99%E6%B3%95%E8%93%AE%E8%8F%AF%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=226468 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|
|Apocryphon of John
|
* Gnosticism
|2<sup>nd</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://gnosticismexplained.org/the-reality-of-the-rulers-the-hypostasis-of-the-archons/ Gnosticism Explained]
* [eng] [http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/apocjn-meyer.html The Gnostic Society Library]
|-
|ⲡⲉⲩⲁⲅⲅⲉⲗⲓⲟⲛ ⲛ̄ⲧⲙⲏⲉ
''p-euaggelion n-tmēe''
|Gospel of the Truth
|
* Gnosticism
|2<sup>nd</sup> century
|
* [eng] [http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/got-barnstone.html The Gnostic Society Library]
|-
|
|Hypostasis of the Archons
|
* Gnosticism
|between 2<sup>nd</sup> century and 3<sup>rd</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://gnosticismexplained.org/the-secret-book-of-john/ Gnosticism Explained]
* [eng] [http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/apocjn-meyer.html The Gnostic Society Library]
|-
|कामसूत्र
''Kāmasūtra''
|Principles of Love
|
* Hinduism
|between 2<sup>nd</sup> and 3<sup>rd</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/5593 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Wikisource]
|-
|वज्रच्छेदिकाप्रज्ञापारमितासूत्र
''Vajracchedikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra''
|Principles of the Diamond-Cutter's Perfection of Wisdom
|
* Buddhism
|between 2<sup>nd</sup> and 5<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%87%91%E5%89%9B%E8%88%AC%E8%8B%A5%E6%B3%A2%E7%BE%85%E8%9C%9C%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.buddhanet.net/ebooks_ms.htm BuddhaNet]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/diamond-sutra/ Ocean 2.0]
* [eng] [http://www.acmuller.net/bud-canon/diamond_sutra.html Resources for East Asian Language and Thought]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0235_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0236a_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0236b_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0237_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://www.book.bfnn.org/books/0040.htm 般若文海]
* [lzh] [https://scripturetw.com/articles/jingangjing 台灣經文網]
|-
|महावैपुल्यबुद्धावतंसकसूत्र
''Buddhāvataṃsakanāmamahāvaipulyasūtra''
|Principles of the Great Vehicle “the Buddha's Garland”
|
* Huáyán school
* Chán school
|between late 3<sup>rd</sup> century and 4<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0278_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%8F%AF%E5%9A%B4%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://huayan-sutra.tw/download/ 百萬華嚴]
|-
|
|Gospel of Philip
|
* Gnosticism
|c. 3<sup>rd</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://gnosticismexplained.org/the-gospel-of-philip/ Gnosticism Explained]
* [eng] [http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/gop.html The Gnostic Society Library]
|-
|मत्स्यपुराण
''Matsyapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on the Fish Avatar
|
* Vaishnavism
|between late 3<sup>rd</sup> century and 5<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|विष्णुपुराण
''Viṣṇupurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on Viṣṇu
|
* Vaishnavism
|between 3<sup>rd</sup> century and 9<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|
|Gospel of Thomas
|
* Gnosticism
|3<sup>rd</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://gnosticismexplained.org/the-gospel-of-thomas/ Gnosticism Explained]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/chr/thomas.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/nhl_thomas.htm The Gnostic Society Library]
|-
|Σύμβολον τῆς Νίκαιας
''Sýmvolon tis Nikéas''
|Nicene Creed
|
* Christianity
|325
|
* [mul] [https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%BC%CE%B2%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A0%CE%AF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%89%CF%82 Wikisource]
|-
|抱樸子
''Bào Pǔ Zǐ''
|Master that Embraces Simplicity
|
* Religious Daoism
|before 343
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/31284 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%8A%B1%E6%9C%B4%E5%AD%90 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/baopuzi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|搜神記
''Sōu Shén Jì''
|In Search of the Supernatural
|
* Chinese folk religion
|c. 350
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2398 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%90%9C%E7%A5%9E%E8%A8%98 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=839038 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|सांख्यप्रवचनसूत्र
''Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtra''
|Principles of the Numeral
|
* Sāṃkhya
|after 350
|
|-
|लिंकावतारसूत्र
''Laṅkāvatārasūtra''
|Principles of the Descent into Laṅkā
|
* Chán school
* Yogācāra
|between 350 and 400
|
* [eng] [https://www.buddhistinformation.com/lankavatara_sutra.htm Buddhist Information]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0671_001 CBETA]
|-
|拾遺記
''Shí Yí Jì''
|Records of Heretofore Lost Works
|
* Chinese folk religion
|before 390
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/56202 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%8B%BE%E9%81%BA%E8%A8%98 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/searchbooks.pl?if=gb&author=%E7%8E%8B%E5%98%89 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|ब्रह्माण्डपुराण
''Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on Lord Brahmā's Egg
|
* Hinduism
|between 4<sup>th</sup> century and 10<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|गरुड़पुराण
''Garuḍapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on Garuḍa
|
* Hinduism
|between 4<sup>th</sup> century and 15<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/gpu/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|पद्मपुराण
''Padmapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on the Lotus
|
* Hinduism
|between 4<sup>th</sup> century and 15<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|道藏
''Dào Zàng''
|Daoist Canon
|
* Religious Daoism
|c. 400
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E8%97%8F Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://daozang.com/ 道藏网]
|-
|पतञ्जलियोगसूत्र
''Pātañjalayogaśāstra''
|Yóga Principles of Patañjali
|
* Yóga
|c. 400
|
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras Wikisoruce]
* [eng] [https://www.online-literature.com/standalone-books/yoga-sutras-patanjali/ The Literature Network]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/hin/yogasutr.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|*''Karuṇikarājarāṣṭrapālaprajñāpāramitāsūtra''
|Principles of the Humane King State-Protection Perfection of Wisdom
|
* Mahāyāna
|before 413
|
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0246_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E4%BB%81%E7%8E%8B%E8%AD%B7%E5%9C%8B%E8%88%AC%E8%8B%A5%E6%B3%A2%E7%BE%85%E8%9C%9C%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
|-
|*''Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa'' / *''Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra''
|Treatise on the Great Wisdom
|
* Mahāyāna
|before 413
|
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T1509_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%99%BA%E5%BA%A6%E8%AB%96 Wikisource]
|-
|''Amitāyurdhyānasūtra''
|Principles of the Meditation on Amitāyus
|
* Pure Land school
|between 424 and 442
|
* [mul] [https://www.pure-land-buddhism.com/pure-land-sutras Pure Land Buddhism]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/meditation-on-buddha-amitayus/ Ocean 2.0]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/bud/sbe49/sbe4933.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [https://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/BDK/bdk_search.php?md=normal&num=B0365 BDK英訳大蔵経]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0365_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%A7%80%E7%84%A1%E9%87%8F%E5%A3%BD%E7%B6%93#%E4%BD%9B%E8%AA%AA%E8%A7%80%E7%84%A1%E9%87%8F%E5%A3%BD%E4%BD%9B%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://www.book.bfnn.org/books/0031.htm 般若文海]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&res=34793 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&res=247538 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|सुवर्णप्रभासोत्तमसूत्रेन्द्रराजः
''Suvarṇaprabhāsasūtra''
|Sovereign King of Principles, the Sublime Golden Light
|
* Mahāyāna
|before 433
|
* [san] [https://www.dsbcproject.org/canon-text/book/60 Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon]
* [eng] [https://read.84000.co/translation/toh555.html 84000.co]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%87%91%E5%85%89%E6%98%8E%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0663_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://www.blisswisdom.org/publications/sutras/a/001 福智全球資訊網]
|-
|
|Chalcedonian Definition
|
* Christianity
|451
|
* [grc] [https://www.earlychurchtexts.com/main/chalcedon/chalcedonian_definition.shtml Early Church Texts]
|-
|拔一切業障根本得生淨土陀羅尼
''Bá Yīqiè Yèzhàng Gēnběn Dé Shēng Jìngtǔ Tuóluóní''
|Chant for Pulling Out the Fundamental Cause of Karmic Obstacles and Obtaining Rebirth in the Pure Land
|
* Pure Land school
|before 468
|
* [mul] [[wikipedia:Amitabha_Pure_Land_Rebirth_Dharani#Popular_text|Wikipedia]]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%BE%80%E7%94%9F%E5%92%92 Wikisource]
|-
|मार्कण्डेयपुराण
''Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on Mārkaṇḍeya
|
* Hinduism
|between 5<sup>th</sup> century and 7<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|लिङ्गपुराण
''Liṅgapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on the Liṅga
|
* Shaivism
|between 5<sup>th</sup> century and 10<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|भागवतपुराण
''Bhāgavatapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on the Divine One
|
* Vaishnavism
|between 500 and 1000
|
|-
|Symbolum Apostolicum
|Apostles' Creed
|
* Christianity
|5<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Symbolum_Apostolicum Wikisource]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">תלמוד</div>
''Talmūḏ''
|Instructions
|
* Judaism
|5<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://www.sefaria.org.il/texts/Talmud ספריא]
* [mul] [https://he.wikisource.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/babylonian-talmud/ Ocean 2.0]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/jud/talmud.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|''Visuddhimagga''
|Path of Purification
|
* Theravāda
|5<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://www.bps.lk/library-search-select.php?id=bp207h Buddhist Publication Society]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/N0035 CBETA]
|-
|''De consolatione philosophiae''
|On the Consolation of Philosophy
|
|523
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/4992 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_philosophiae_consolatione Wikisource]
|-
|भविष्यपुराण
''Bhaviṣyapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on the Future
|
* Hinduism
|after 5<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|''Abestāg''
|Abestāg
|
* Zoroastrianism
|c. 6<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://avesta.org/ Zoroastrian Archives]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/collection/avesta/ Ocean 2.0]
|-
|Symbolum Athanasianum
|Athanasian Creed
|
* Christianity
|early 6<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Symbolum_Quicumque Wikisoruce]
|-
|Κλῖμαξ
''Klîmax''
|Ladder
|
* Eastern Orthodox Christianity
* Roman Catholic Church
|c. 600
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">القرآن</div>
''al-Qurʔān''
|Recitation
|
* Islam
* Druze
|610 – 632
|
* [mul] [https://www.al-islam.org/quran Al-Islam.org]
* [mul] [https://koran.link/ Koran.link]
* [mul] [https://corpus.quran.com/ Quranic Arabic Corpus]
* [mul] [https://quran.com/ Quran.com]
* [mul] [https://quranenc.com/ QuranEnc.com]
* [mul] [https://rehmani.net/al-quran/ Rehmani.net]
* [mul] [https://quran.ksu.edu.sa/ مشروع المصحف الإلكتروني بجامعة الملك سعود]
* [ara] [https://www.assabile.com/ Assabile]
* [ara] [https://www.mp3quran.net/ MP3Quran.net]
* [ara] [https://quranaudiobooks.com/ Quran Audiobooks]
* [ara] [https://www.quranicaudio.com/ QuranicAudio]
* [eng] [https://www.online-literature.com/standalone-books/koran/ The Literature Network]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/quran_rodwell-tr/ Ocean 2.0]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/quran_palmer-tr/ Ocean 2.0]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/holy-quran_yusuf-tr/ Ocean 2.0]
* [cmn] [https://chinese-tafsir.com/ 《古兰经》简明注释]
|-
|महाकरुणाधारनी
''Nīlakaṇṭhadhāraṇī''
|Chant of Great Compassion
|
* Mahāyāna
|between 650 and 660
|
* [mul] [[wikipedia:Nīlakaṇṭha_Dhāraṇī#Texts_and_translations|Wikipedia]]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%82%B2%E5%92%92 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://scripturetw.com/articles/dabeizhou 台灣經文網]
|-
|''Vairocanābhisaṃbodhisūtra''
|Principles of the Perfect Awakening of the Great Vairocana
|
* Vajrayāna
|before 674
|
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0848_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/zh/%E5%A4%A7%E6%AF%98%E7%9B%A7%E9%81%AE%E9%82%A3%E6%88%90%E4%BD%9B%E7%A5%9E%E8%AE%8A%E5%8A%A0%E6%8C%81%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/BDK/bdk_search.php?md=normal&num=B0848 BDK英訳大蔵経]
|-
|圓覺經
''Yuán Jué Jīng''
|Principles of Perfect Enlightenment
|
* Huáyán school
* Chán school
* Tiāntāi school
|before 693
|
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0842_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%9C%93%E8%A6%BA%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://www.book.bfnn.org/books/0015.htm 般若文海]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=40515 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
* [eng] [https://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/BDK/bdk_search.php?md=normal&num=B0842 BDK英訳大蔵経]
|-
|''Kṣitigarbhabodhisattvapūrvapraṇidhānasūtra''
|Principles of the Fundamental Vows of the Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha
|
* Mahāyāna
|before 7<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0412_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E8%97%8F%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E6%9C%AC%E9%A1%98%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://www.book.bfnn.org/books/0016.htm 般若文海]
* [lzh] [https://scripturetw.com/articles/dizangjing 台灣經文網]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=en&res=528669 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|''Sarvatathāgatatattvasaṃgrahasūtra''
|Compendium of the Reality of All Tathāgatas
|
* Vajrayāna
|7<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0865_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%87%91%E5%89%9B%E9%A0%82%E4%B8%80%E5%88%87%E5%A6%82%E4%BE%86%E7%9C%9F%E5%AF%A6%E6%94%9D%E5%A4%A7%E4%B9%98%E7%8F%BE%E8%AD%89%E5%A4%A7%E6%95%99%E7%8E%8B%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
|-
|唐太宗李衛公問對
''Táng Tàizōng Lǐ Wèigōng Wènduì''
|Questions and Replies between Emperor Tàizōng of Táng and Lǐ, Duke of Wèi
|
* School of Military
|after 7<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%94%90%E6%9D%8E%E5%95%8F%E5%B0%8D Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/searchbooks.pl?if=en&author=%E6%9D%8E%E9%9D%96 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|''Śūraṅgamasūtra''
|Principles of the Heroic March
|
* Chán school
|before 705
|
* [eng] [https://www.buddhanet.net/ebooks_ms.htm BuddhaNet]
* [eng] [https://www.cttbusa.org/shurangama/shurangama_contents.asp City of Ten Thousand Buddhas]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0945_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%A5%9E%E5%9A%B4%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://www.book.bfnn.org/books/0082.htm 般若文海]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/searchbooks.pl?if=gb&author=%E8%88%AC%E5%89%8C%E5%AF%86%E5%B8%9D 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|Bēowulf
|Beowulf
|
* Norse religion
|between 700 and 1000
|
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Beowulf Wikisource]
* [ang] [https://ebeowulf.uky.edu/ebeo4.0/ Electronic Beowulf]
* [ang] [https://sacred-texts.com/neu/ascp/a04_01.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [https://www.literatureproject.com/beowulf/index.htm The Literature Project]
|-
|古事記
''Kojiki''
|Records of Ancient Matters
|
* Shintō
|712
|
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/shi/kj/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [lzh] [https://www.seisaku.bz/kojiki_index.html seisaku.bz]
* [lzh] [https://ja.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BA%8B%E8%A8%98 Wikisource]
|-
|日本書紀
''Nihon Shoki''
|Chronicles of Japan
|
* Shintō
|720
|
* [lzh] [https://www.seisaku.bz/shoki_index.html seisaku.bz]
* [lzh] [https://ja.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E6%9B%B8%E7%B4%80 Wikisource]
|-
|''Susiddhikārasūtra''
|Principles of the Accomplishing Deed
|
* Vajrayāna
|before 726
|
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0893a_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E6%82%89%E5%9C%B0%E7%BE%AF%E5%9B%89%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">موطأ الإمام مالك</div>
''Muwatta Imam Malik''
|Path of Imam Malik
|
* Sunni
|before 795
|
* [mul] [https://sunnah.com/tirmidhi Sunnah.com]
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B0%D9%8A Wikisource]
|-
|प्रज्ञापारमिताहृदय
''Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya''
|Heart of the Perfection of Wisdom
|
* Mahāyāna
|8<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://ancient-buddhist-texts.net/Texts-and-Translations/Short-Pieces-in-Sanskrit/Prajnaparamita-Hrdaya.htm Ancient Buddha Texts]
* [mul] [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AF Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/heart-sutra/ Ocean 2.0]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/heart-sutra-short-form/ Ocean 2.0]
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T0251_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://scripturetw.com/articles/xinjing 台灣經文網]
|-
|कूर्मपुराण
''Kūrmapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on the Tortoise
|
* Vaishnavism
|early 8<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|स्कन्दपुराण
''Skandapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on Skanda
|
* Hinduism
|from 8<sup>th</sup> century to 12<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|गुह्यसमाजतंत्र
''Guhyasamājatantra''
|Compendium of the Secret Society
|
* Vajrayāna
|late 8<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|
|Emerald Tablet
|
* Hermeticism
|between late 8<sup>th</sup> century and early 9<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://hermetic.com/texts/emerald Hermetic Library]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/alc/emerald.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [eng] [http://www.gnosis.org/library/hermet.htm The Gnostic Society Library]
|-
|ब्रह्मवैवर्तपुराण
''Brahmávaivártapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on the Transformation of Brahmā
|
* Hinduism
|between 8<sup>th</sup> and 10<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">سنن أبي داود</div>
''Sunan Abī Dāwūd''
|Narrative of Abī Dāwūd
|
* Sunni
|before 889
|
* [mul] [https://sunnah.com/abudawud Sunnah.com]
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%86_%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AF Wikisource]
* [ara] [https://hadithprophet.com/hadith-book-1.html حديث الرسول]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">سنن الترمذي</div>
''Sunan al-Tirmidhī''
|Narrative of al-Tirmidhī
|
* Sunni
|884
|
* [mul] [https://sunnah.com/abudawud Sunnah.com]
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%86_%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AF Wikisource]
* [ara] [https://hadithprophet.com/hadith-book-1.html حديث الرسول]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">سنن ابن ماجه</div>
''Sunan Ibn Mājah''
|Narrative of Ibn Mājah
|
* Sunni
|before 887
|
* [mul] [https://sunnah.com/ibnmajah Sunnah.com]
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%A9 Wikisource]
* [ara] [https://hadithprophet.com/hadith-book-5.html حديث الرسول]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">صحيح البخاري</div>
''Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī''
|Authentic Bukhārī Collection
|
* Sunni
|9<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://sunnah.com/bukhari Sunnah.com]
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A Wikisource]
* [ara] [https://hadithprophet.com/hadith-book-3.html حديث الرسول]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">صحيح مسلم</div>
''Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim''
|Authentic Muslim
|
* Sunni
|9<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://sunnah.com/muslim Sunnah.com]
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%AD_%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85 Wikisource]
* [ara] [https://hadithprophet.com/hadith-book-7.html حديث الرسول]
|-
|उत्तरपुराण
''Uttarapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on the Reply
|
* Jainism
|9<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|आदिपुराण
''Ādipurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on the Commencement
|
* Jainism
|9<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|वामनपुराण
''Vāmanapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on Vāmana
|
* Hinduism
|between 9<sup>th</sup> century and 11<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">السنن الصغرى</div>
''al-Sunan al-Ṣughrā''
|The Minor Narrative
|
* Sunni
|before 915
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">العقيدة الطحاوية</div>
''al-'aqida al-Tahawiyya''
|The Ṭaḥāwī's Doctrine
|
* Maturidism
|before 933
|
* [mul] [https://www.central-mosque.com/index.php/Beliefs/belieftahawiyyah.html www.central-mosque.com]
* [mul] [https://www.abuaminaelias.com/aqeedah-tahawiyyah/ Abuaminaelias.com]
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9 Wikisource]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">الكافي</div>
''Kitab al-Kāfī''
|The Sufficient
|
* Shia
|before 941
|
* [mul] [https://thaqalayn.net/book/1 Thaqalayn]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">كتاب التوحيد</div>
''Kitab al-Tawhid''
|Book of Monotheism
|
* Atharism
|before 944
|
* [mul] [https://abdurrahman.org/islamic-book-study/kitab-at-tawheed/ AbdurRahman.Org]
* [mul] [https://thaqalayn.net/book/14 Thaqalayn]
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B0%D9%8A_%D9%87%D9%88_%D8%AD%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF Wikisource]
|-
|''Ardā Wirāz nāmag''
|Book of the Righteous Wirāz
|
* Zoroastrianism
|between 9<sup>th</sup> century and 10<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://www.avesta.org/pahlavi/viraf.html AVESTA]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">𐭣𐭩𐭭𐭪𐭠𐭫𐭲</div>
''Dēnkard''
|Acts of Religion
|
* Zoroastrianism
|10<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://www.avesta.org/denkard/denkard.htm AVESTA]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">من لا يحضره الفقيه</div>
''Man lā Yaḥḍuruhu al-Faqīh''
|He Who has no Jurisprudent
|
* Shia
|10<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|शिवपुराण
''Śivapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on Śiva
|
* Shaivism
|between 10<sup>th</sup> century and 11<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|वराहपुराण
''Varāhapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on the Boar Avatar
|
* Vaishnavism
|between 10<sup>th</sup> century and 12<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">شاهنامه</div>
''Šāhnāme''
|Book of Kings
|
* Iranian religion
|1010
|
* [mul] [https://fa.wikisource.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87 Wikisource]
* [fas] [https://www.shahnameh.me/ shahnameh.me]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">نهج البلاغة</div>
''Nahj al-Balāgha''
|Path of Eloquence
|
* Shia
|before 1015
|
* [mul] [https://www.al-islam.org/nahjul-balagha-part-1-sermons Al-Islam.org]
* [mul] [https://www.al-islam.org/nahjul-balagha-part-2-letters-and-sayings Al-Islam.org]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">رسائل الحكمة</div>
''Rasāʔil al-Ḥikma''
|Epistles of Wisdom
|
* Druze
|between 1017 and 1043
|
* [ara] [https://www.muhammadanism.org/Arabic/default.htm Muhammadanism]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">کتاب الشفاء</div>
''Kitāb al-Shifāʔ''
|Book of Healing
|
|1027
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">المحلى بالآثار</div>
''Kitab al-Muhallā bi'l Athār''
|Sweetened with Antiquities
|
* Ẓāhirī school
|before 1064
|
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86_%D8%AD%D8%B2%D9%85_-_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%89 Wikisource]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">تهذیب الاحکام فی شرح المقنعه</div>
''Tahdhīb al-Aḥkām fī Sharḥ al-Muqniʕa''
|Rectification of the Statutes in Explaining the Disguised
|
* Shia
|before 1067
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">الاستبصار فيما اختلف من الأخبار</div>
''al-Istibṣār fī-mā ukhtulifa min al-Akhbār''
|Reflection Upon the Disputed Traditions
|
* Shia
|before 1067
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">الإرشاد إلى قواطع الأدلة في أصول الاعتقاد</div>
''al-Irshad ila Qawati' al-Adilla fi Usul al-I'tiqad''
|Guide to Conclusive Proofs for the Principles of Belief
|
* Ash'arism
|before 1085
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">تهافت الفلاسفة</div>
''Tahāfut al-Falāsifa''
|Incoherence of the Philosophers
|
* Ash'arism
|11<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_(%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A) Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/tahafut-incoherence_ibn-rushd/ Ocean 2.0]
* [eng] [https://www.ghazali.org/books/tf/index.htm ghazali.org]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">نهج البلاغة</div>
''Nahj al-Balāgha''
|Path of Eloquence
|
* Shia
|11<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://www.al-islam.org/tags/nahj-al-balagha Al-Islam.org]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">تبصرة الأدلة في أصول الدين على طريقة الإمام أبي منصور الماتريدي</div>
''Tabsirat al-Adilla fi Usul al-Din: 'ala Tariqat al-Imam Abi Mansur al-Maturidi''
|Exposition of the Proofs in the Basic Principles of Religion on the Basis of the Arguments of Imam Abu Mansur al-Maturidi's Teachings
|
* Maturidism
|between 11<sup>th</sup> century and early 12<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [ara] [https://markazulfiqh.com/2020/07/29/tabsirat-al-adillah-pdf/ Markazul Fiqh]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">الاقتصاد في الاعتقاد</div>
''al-Iqtisād fī al-iʕtiqad''
|Moderation in Belief
|
* Ash'arism
|before 1111
|
* [mul] [https://www.ghazali.org/combined/ ghazali.org]
* [ara] [https://ar.wikisource.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%AF Wikisource]
|-
|碧巖錄
''Bì Yán Lù''
|Blue Cliff Record
|
* Chán school
|1125
|
* [lzh] [https://cbetaonline.dila.edu.tw/zh/T2003_001 CBETA]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=512378 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">كتاب الحجة والدليل في نصرة الدين الذليل</div>
''Kitāb al-ḥujja wa'l-dalīl fi naṣr al-dīn al-dhalīl''
|Book of Refutation and Proof on Behalf of the Despised Religion
|
* Judaism
|between 1139 and 1140
|
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitab_al_Khazari Wikisource]
* [heb] [https://www.cs.toronto.edu/~yuvalf/kuzari.html University of Toronto]
* [mul] [https://www.sefaria.org/Kuzari?tab=contents ספריא]
* [heb] [https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/mahshevt/kuzari/shaar-2.htm דעת]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">دلالة الحائرين</div>
''Dalālat al-ḥā'irīn''
|The Guide for the Perplexed
|
* Aristotelianism
|c. 1190
|
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Guide_for_the_Perplexed_(1904) Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73584 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/jud/gfp/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
* [heb] [https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/mahshevt/more/shaar-2.htm דעת]
* [rus] [https://machanaim.org/philosof/in_more.htm Маханаим]
|-
|अग्निपुराण
''Agnipurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on Agni
|
* Hinduism
|before 12<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">مفاتيح الغيب</div>
''Mafatih al-Ghayb''
|Key to the Unknown
|
* Sunni
|12<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">تهافت التهافت</div>
''Tahāfut al-Tahāfut''
|The Incoherence of the Incoherence
|
* Aristotelianism
|12<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|近思錄
''Jìn Sī Lù''
|Records of Recent Thoughts
|
* School of Principle
|before 1200
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2448 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E6%80%9D%E9%8C%84 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=675972 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">מדרש</div>
''Midrashim''
|Textual Interpretation
|
* Judaism
|c. 1200
|
* [mul] [https://www.sefaria.org.il/texts/Midrash ספריא]
* [heb] [https://he.wikisource.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%98%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%98:%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99/%D7%97%D7%96%22%D7%9C/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%A9 Wikisource]
|-
|Der Nibelunge liet
|The Song of the Nibelungs
|
* Norse religion
|c. 1200
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/search/?query=Nibelunge Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nibelungenlied Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/anonymous/the-nibelungenlied/alice-horton Standard Ebooks]
|-
|Sæmundar Edda
|Sæmundar's Edda
|
* Norse religion
|1270s
|
* [mul] [https://librivox.org/author/9995 LibriVox]
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Poetic_Edda Wikisource]
* [isl] [https://runeberg.org/eddais/ Project Runeberg]
* [dan] [https://runeberg.org/eddan/ Project Runeberg]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73533 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/ Sacred-Texts]
* [nor] [https://runeberg.org/eddano/ Project Runeberg]
|-
|Summa Theologiae
|Summary of Theology
|
* Scholasticism
|1274
|
* [mul] [https://aquinas.cc/ aquinas.cc]
* [mul] [https://www2.hf.uio.no/polyglotta/index.php?page=volume&vid=219 Bibliotheca Polyglotta Graeca et Latina]
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Summa_Theologiae Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0023/ IntraText]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/7489 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://oceanlibrary.com/summa-theologica_saint-thomas-aquinas/ Ocean 2.0]
|-
|Snorra Edda
|Snorri's Edda
|
* Norse religion
|early 13<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://librivox.org/author/11622 LibriVox]
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/312 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Prose_Edda Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/neu/pre/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">قصيدة البردة</div>
''Qasīdat al-Burda''
|Ode of the Mantle
|
* Sunni–Sufi
|13<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [mul] [https://qasidaburda.com/ QasidaBurda.com]
* [eng] [http://www.deenislam.co.uk/burdah/burdah.htm Deenislam]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">تجرید الاعتقاد</div>
''Tajrīd al-Iʕtiqād''
|Abstraction of the Belief
|
* Shia
|13<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">أنوار التنزيل وأسرار التأويل</div>
''Anwar al-Tanzil wa-Asrar al-Ta'wil''
|Lights of Revelation and the Secrets of Interpretation
|
* Sunni
|before 1319
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">غرائب القرآن ورغائب الفرقان</div>
''Ghara'ib al-Qur'an wa Ragha'ib al-Furqan''
|Wonders of the Recitation and Desiderata of the Criterion
|
* Sunni–Sufi
|before 1330
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">تفسير القرءان العظيم‎</div>
''Tafsīr al-Qurʔān al-ʕaẓīm''
|Interpretation of the Great Recitation
|
* Sunni
|before 1373
|
|-
|嶺南摭怪
Lĩnh Nam chích quái
|Selection of Strange Tales in Lĩnh Nam
|
* Vietnamese folk religion
|14<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%B6%BA%E5%8D%97%E6%91%AD%E6%80%AA Wikisource]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">دلائل الخيرات وشوارق الأنوار في ذكر الصلاة على النبي المختار</div>
''Dalā'il al-Khayrāt wa-Shawāriq al-Anwār fī Dhikr al-Ṣalāt 'alá al-Nabī al-Mukhtār''
|Waymarks of Benefits and the Brilliant Burst of Lights in the Remembrance of Blessings on the Chosen Prophet
|
* Sunni–Sufi
|before 1465
|
* [mul] [https://www.iqra.net/Salaams/index.html Iqra Islamic Publications]
|-
|Missale Romanum
|Roman Missal
|
* Roman Catholic Church
|1474
|
* [mul] [https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccdds/documents/rc_con_ccdds_missale-romanum_index_en.html The Holy See]
|-
|Moriae encomium
|In Praise of Folly
|
* Renaissance humanism
|1509
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/3026 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Moriae_encomium Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://ccel.org/ccel/erasmus/folly/folly Christian Classics Ethereal Library]
|-
|Libellus vere aureus, nec minus salutaris quam festivus, de optimo rei publicae statu deque nova insula Utopia
|Truly golden little book, not less beneficial than enjoyable, about how things should be in a state and about the new island Utopia
|
* Renaissance humanism
|1516
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/827 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Utopia Wikisource]
* [deu] [https://kaltric.wordpress.com/mat/matphil/utopia/ kaltric]
* [eng] [https://www.globalgreyebooks.com/utopia-more-ebook.html Global Grey]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/2660 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://www.literatureproject.com/utopia/index.htm Literature Project]
* [eng] [https://theopenutopia.org/full-text/introduction-open-utopia/ Open Utopia]
|-
|Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum
|Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences
|
* Christianity
|1517
|
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Disputatio_pro_declaratione_virtutis_indulgentiarum Wikisource]
* [mul] [https://www.luther.de/en/95thesen.html www.LUTHER.de]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/274 Project Gutenberg]
|-
|Der Große Katechismus
|The Large Catechism
|
* Lutheranism
|1529
|
* [eng] [https://thebookofconcord.org/large-catechism/ theBookOfConcord.org]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1722 Project Gutenberg]
|-
|Der Kleine Katechismus
|The Small Catechism
|
* Lutheranism
|1529
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/155 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Luther%27s_Small_Catechism Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://thebookofconcord.org/small-catechism/ theBookOfConcord.org]
|-
|Il Principe
|The Prince
|
* Machiavellianism
|1532
|
* [mul] [https://librivox.org/author/885 LibriVox]
* [mul] [https://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Il_Principe Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/563 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/theprince/ Pressbooks]
|-
|Book of Common Prayer
|Book of Common Prayer
|
* Anglican Communion
|1549
|
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.bcponline.org/ The Church Hymnal Corporation]
* [eng] [https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/book-common-prayer The Church of England]
|-
|Confession de foy
|Confession of Faith
|
* Continental Reformed Protestantism
|1559
|
* [mul] [https://www.creeds.net/reformed/gnvconf.htm Creeds of Christendom]
* [eng] [https://heidelblog.net/belgic/ Heidelblog]
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Constitution_of_the_Reformed_Dutch_Church_of_North_America/The_Confession_of_Faith Wikisource]
|-
|Catechismus oder christlicher Vnderricht, wie der in Kirchen vnd Schulen der Churfürstlichen Pfaltz getrieben wirdt
|Catechism, or Christian Instruction, according to the Usages of the Churches and Schools of the Electoral Palatinate
|
* Continental Reformed Protestantism
|1563
|
* [mul] [https://rcus.org/documents-and-downloads/ The Reformed Church] [https://rcus.org/documents-and-downloads/ in the United States]
*[eng] [https://www.crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/confessions/heidelberg-catechism Christian Reformed Church in North America]
|-
|西遊記
''Xīyóu Jì''
|Journey to the West
|
* Chinese folk religion
|c. 1592
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/23962 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E9%81%8A%E8%A8%98 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/xiyouji 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|ब्रह्मपुराण
''Brahmāpurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on Brahmā
|
* Hinduism
|16<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|封神演義
''Fēngshén Yǎnyì''
|Investiture of the Gods
|
* Chinese folk religion
|16<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/23910 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%B0%81%E7%A5%9E%E6%BC%94%E7%BE%A9 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/fengshen-yanyi 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|傳習錄
''Chuán Xí Lù''
|Records of Imparts and Studies
|
* School of Mind
|16<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [lzh] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25517 Project Gutenberg]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%82%B3%E7%BF%92%E9%8C%84 Wikisource]
* [lzh] [https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=873181 中國哲學書電子化計劃]
|-
|नारदपुराण
''Nāradapurāṇa''
|Ancient Texts on Nārada
|
* Vaishnavism
|between 16<sup>th</sup> century and 17<sup>th</sup> century
|
|-
|La città del sole
|The City of the Sun
|
|1602
|
* [ita] [https://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Indice:Campanella_-_La_Citt%C3%A0_del_Sole,_manoscritto,_1602.djvu Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/3619 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2816 Project Gutenberg]
|-
|ਗੁਰੂ ਗ੍ਰੰਥ ਸਾਹਿਬ
''Guru Granth Sahib''
|Master Guru Granth
|
* Sikhism
|1604
|
* [mul] [https://www.sikhnet.com/Siri-Guru-Granth-Sahib#tab-read SikhNet]
|-
|琉球神道記
''Ryūkyū Shintō-Ki''
|Account of the Ways of the Gods in Ryūkyū
|
* Ryukyuan religion
|c. 1605
|
|-
|Rituale Romanum
|Roman Ritual
|
* Roman Catholic Church
|1614
|
|-
|Iudicium Synodi Nationalis, Reformatarum Ecclesiarum Belgicarum. habitæ Dordrechti
|The Decision of the Synod of Dort on the Five Main Points of Doctrine in Dispute in the Netherlands
|
* Continental Reformed Protestantism
|1619
|
* [nld] [https://www.dordtse-leerregels.nl/ Dordtse Leerregels.nl]
* [nld] [https://www.online-bijbel.nl/dordtseleerregels/overzicht/ Online-Bijbel]
* [afr] [https://nhka.org/dordtse-leerreels/ Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk van Afrika]
* [eng] [https://www.crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/confessions/canons-dort Christian Reformed Church in North America]
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Constitution_of_the_Reformed_Dutch_Church_of_North_America/Canons_of_the_Synod_of_Dordrecht Wikisource]
|-
|Novum Organum, sive Indicia Vera de Interpretatione Naturae
|New Organon, or True Directions of the Interpretation of Nature
|
* empiricism
|1620
|
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Novum_Organum Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/1041 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/45988 Project Gutenberg]
|-
|Meditationes de Prima Philosophia, in qua Dei existentia et animæ immortalitas demonstratur
|Meditations on First Philosophy, in which the existence of God and the immortality of the soul are demonstrated
|
* Cartesianism
|1641
|
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Meditationes_de_prima_philosophia_(Adam_et_Tannery) Wikisource]
* [lat] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/23306 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://www.earlymoderntexts.com/authors/descartes Early Modern Texts]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/4158 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/phi/desc/med.txt Sacred-Texts]
* [fra] [https://athena.unige.ch/athena/descartes/descartes-meditations-metaphysiques-complet.html ATHENA]
|-
|Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil
|Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil
|
|1651
|
* [eng] [https://www.globalgreyebooks.com/leviathan-ebook.html Global Grey]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/4335 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3207 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Leviathan Wikisource]
|-
|Tractatus Theologico-Politicus
|Theologico-Political Treatise
|
|1670
|
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Theologico-Political_Treatise_1862 Wikisource]
|-
|Ethica, ordine geometrico demonstrata
|Ethics, Demonstrated in Geometrical Order
|
* rationalism
|1677
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/473 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Ethica Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.earlymoderntexts.com/authors/spinoza Early Modern Texts]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/1355 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/phi/spinoza/ethics/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
|The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
|
|1687
|
* [mul] [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica Wikisource]
* [lat] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/28233 Project Gutenberg]
|-
|An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
|An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
|
* empiricism
|1689
|
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/4362 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/2447 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Humane_Understanding Wikisource]
|-
|Popol Vuh
|Book of the Community
|
* Maya religion
|1702
|
* [mul] [https://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Popol_Vuh Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.meta-religion.com/World_Religions/Ancient_religions/Central_america/popol_vuh.htm Meta religion]
|-
|La Monadologie
|The Monadology
|
|1714
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/7168 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Monadologie Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.globalgreyebooks.com/monadology-ebook.html Global Grey]
|-
|葉隱
''Hagakure''
|Hidden by Leaves
|
|1716
|
|-
|A Treatise of Human Nature
|A Treatise of Human Nature
|
* empiricism
|1740
|
* [eng] [https://davidhume.org/texts/t/ Hume Texts Online]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4705 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/bigge-a-treatise-of-human-nature The Online Library of Liberty]
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treatise_of_Human_Nature Wikisource]
|-
|De l'esprit des loix
|The Spirit of Law
|
|1748
|
* [mul] [https://librivox.org/author/5314 LibriVox]
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Laws Wikisource]
* [fra] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/27573 Project Gutenberg]
|-
|Du contrat social; ou, Principes du droit politique
|On the Social Contract; or, Principles of Political Right
|
|1762
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1286 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Du_contrat_social Wikisource]
|-
|Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain
|New Essays on Human Understanding
|
* rationalism
|1765
|
* [fra] [https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Nouveaux_Essais_sur_l%E2%80%99entendement_humain Wikisource]
|-
|An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
|An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
|
|1776
|
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.adamsmith.org/the-wealth-of-nations/ Adam Smith Institute]
* [eng] [https://www.adamsmithworks.org/documents/cannan-edition Adam Smith Works]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/395 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/smith-adam/works/wealth-of-nations/ Marxists Internet Archive]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1158 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/adam-smith/the-wealth-of-nations Standard Ebooks]
|-
|Critik der reinen Vernunft
|Critique of Pure Reason
|
* Kantianism
|1781
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1426 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Critik_der_reinen_Vernunft_(1781) Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/1312 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/phi/kant/critpure.txt Sacred-Texts]
|-
|The Sunday Service of the Methodists; With Other Occasional Services
|The Sunday Service of the Methodists; With Other Occasional Services
|
* Methodism
|1784
|
|-
|Chilám Balám
|Chilám Balám
|
* Maya religion
|18<sup>th</sup> century
|
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/nam/maya/cbc/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde
|On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason
|
|1813
|
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_the_Fourfold_Root_of_the_Principle_of_Sufficient_Reason Wikisource]
|-
|Book of Mormon
|Book of Mormon
|
* Mormonism
|1830
|
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Book_of_Mormon Wikisource]
* [mul] [https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/bofm?lang=eng The Church of Jesus Christ of Later-Day Saints]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/17 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://www.online-literature.com/standalone-books/book-of-mormon/ The Literature Network]
|-
|Doctrine and Covenants
|Doctrine and Covenants
|
* Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
|1835
|
* [mul] [https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament?lang=eng The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Doctrine_and_Covenants Wikisource]
|-
|Enten – Eller
|Either/Or
|
|1843
|
|-
|Frygt og Bæven
|Fear and Trembling
|
|1843
|
* [eng] [https://www.religion-online.org/book/fear-and-trembling/ Religion Online]
|-
|Pearl of Great Price
|Pearl of Great Price
|
* Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
|1851
|
* [mul] [https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/title-page?lang=eng The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pearl_of_Great_Price_(1913) Wikisource]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">چهار وادی‎</div>
''Chahár Vádí''
|Four Valleys
|
* Baháʼí Faith
|1856
|
* [eng] [https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/bahaullah/call-divine-beloved/9#545908212 Bahá'í Library]
* [lzh] [https://mybahaibook.com/yiwen/showBook.php?book=4 巴哈伊中文书籍]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">هفت وادی‎</div>
''Haft Vádí''
|Seven Valleys
|
* Baháʼí Faith
|between 1857 and 1858
|
* [eng] [https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/bahaullah/call-divine-beloved/1#959114648 Bahá'í Library]
* [lzh] [https://mybahaibook.com/yiwen/showBook.php?book=3 巴哈伊中文书籍]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">کلمات مكنونة</div>
''Kalimát-i-Maknúnih''
|Hidden Words
|
* Baháʼí Faith
|1858
|
* [mul] [https://www.bahaiprayers.io/ bahaiprayers.io]
* [mul] [https://bahaiprayers.net/HiddenWordsMatrix bahaiprayers.net]
* [eng] [https://bahai-library.com/bahaullah_hidden_words Bahá'í Library]
* [eng] [https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/bahaullah/hidden-words/ Bahai.org]
* [lzh] [https://mybahaibook.com/yiwen/showBook.php?book=6 巴哈伊中文书籍]
|-
|Utilitarianism
|Utilitarianism
|
* utilitarianism
|1861
|
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/2881 LibriVox]
* [eng] [https://pressbooks.library.torontomu.ca/utilitarianism/ Pressbooks]
* [eng] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1705 Project Gutenberg]
* [eng] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Utilitarianism Wikisource]
|-
|Das Kapital. Kritik der politischen Ökonomie
|Capital: A Critique of Political Economy
|
* historical materialism
|1867 – 1894
|
* [mul] [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/46 Project Gutenberg]
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Das_Kapital Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/index.htm Marxists Internet Archive]
* [eng] [https://librivox.org/author/2426 LibriVox]
* [cmn] [https://www.marxists.org/chinese/marx/capital/index.htm Marxists Internet Archive]
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">الكتاب الأقدس</div>
''Kitáb-i-Aqdas''
|The Most Holy Book
|
* Baháʼí Faith
|1873
|
* [mul] [https://bahai-library.com/author/Bahaullah/ Bahá'i Library]
* [mul] [https://bahaiprayers.net/AqdasMatrix Bahá'í Prayers]
* [eng] [https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/bahaullah/kitab-i-aqdas/ Bahai.org]
|-
|Sacred Books of the East
|Sacred Books of the East
|
|1879 – 1910
|
* [eng] [https://sacred-texts.com/sbe/index.htm Sacred-Texts]
|-
|Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums und des Staats
|The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State
|
* historical materialism
|1884
|
* [mul] [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State Wikisource]
* [eng] [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/index.htm Marxists Internet Archive]
|-
|Evangelical Lutheran Hymn-Book
|Evangelical Lutheran Hymn-Book
|
* Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod
|1912
|
* [eng] [https://hymnary.org/hymnal/ELHL1918 Hymnary.org]
* [eng] [https://www.projectwittenberg.org/etext/hymnals/ELHB1912/index.htm Project Wittenberg]
|-
|Der Untergang des Abendlandes
|The Downfall of the Occident
|
|1918 – 1922
|
|-
|大正新脩大藏經
''Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō''
|Three Baskets Revised by Taishō
|
* Mahāyāna
|c. 1930
|
* [lzh] [https://ntireader.org/taisho/taisho.html NTI Readir]
* [lzh] [https://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/SAT/index_en.html The SAT Daizōkyō Text Database]
* [lzh] [https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%AD%A3%E6%96%B0%E8%84%A9%E5%A4%A7%E8%97%8F%E7%B6%93 Wikisource]
|-
|The Lutheran Hymnal
|The Lutheran Hymnal
|
* Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod
|1941
|
* [eng] [https://hymnary.org/hymnal/LH1941 Hymnary.org]
* [eng] [http://lutherantacoma.com/hymns/ lutherantacoma.com]
* [eng] [https://www.projectwittenberg.org/etext/hymnals/tlh/ Project Wittenberg]
|-
|Baptist Hymnal
|Baptist Hymnal
|
* Southern Baptist Convention
|1956
|
* [eng] [https://hymnary.org/hymnal/BH1975 Hymnary.org]
* [eng] [https://hymnary.org/hymnal/BH1991 Hymnary.org]
* [eng] [https://hymnary.org/hymnal/BH2008 Hymnary.org]
|-
|Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit. Untersuchungen zu einer Kategorie der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft
|The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society
|
* Frankfurt School
|1962
|
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">ملفوظات</div>
''Malfūzāt''
|Spoken Words
|
* Ahmadiyya
|1960 – 1967
|
|-
|Catechismus Catholicae Ecclesiae
|Catechism of the Catholic Church
|
* Christianity
|1992
|
* [mul] [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc/index.htm The Holy See]
|}

== Groups ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!group
!translation of group
!work
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">الكتب الأربعة</div>
''al-Kutub al-ʔarbaʕa''
|The Four Books
|
* <div style="text-align:right">''al-Kāfī fi al-Uṣūl wal-Furūʕ'' الكافي في الأصول والفروع</div>
* <div style="text-align:right">''Man lā Yaḥḍuruhu al-Faqīh'' من لا يحضره الفقيه</div>
* <div style="text-align:right">''Tahdhīb al-Aḥkām fī Sharḥ al-Muqniʕa'' تهذیب الاحکام فی شرح المقنعه</div>
* <div style="text-align:right">''al-Istibṣār fī-mā ukhtulifa min al-Akhbār'' الاستبصار فيما اختلف من الأخبار</div>
|-
|<div style="text-align:right">الكتب الستة</div>
''al-Kutub al-Sitta''
|The Six Books
|
* <div style="text-align:right">''Sunan Abī Dāwūd'' سنن أبي داود</div>
* <div style="text-align:right">''Sunan al-Tirmidhī'' سنن الترمذي</div>
* <div style="text-align:right">''Sunan Ibn Mājah'' سنن ابن ماجه</div>
* <div style="text-align:right">''Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī'' صحيح البخاري</div>
* <div style="text-align:right">''Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim'' صحيح مسلم</div>
* <div style="text-align:right">''al-Sunan al-Ṣughrā'' السنن الصغرى</div>
|-
|Drie Formulieren van Enigheid
|Three Forms of Unity
|
* Confession de foy
* Catechismus oder christlicher Vnderricht, wie der in Kirchen vnd Schulen der Churfürstlichen Pfaltz getrieben wirdt
* Iudicium Synodi Nationalis, Reformatarum Ecclesiarum Belgicarum. habitæ Dordrechti
|-
|Kritiken
|Critiques
|
* Critik der reinen Vernunft
* Critik der praktischen Vernunft
* Critik der Urteilskraft
|-
|六經
''Liù Jīng''
|Six Classics
|
* 詩經 ''Shī Jīng''
* 書經 ''Shū Jīng''
* 禮記 ''Lǐ Jì''
* 樂經 ''Yuè Jīng''
* 易經 ''Yì Jīng''
* 春秋 ''Chūn Qiū''
|-
|महापुराण
''Mahāpurāṇa''
|Major Ancient Texts (Hinduism)
|
* मत्स्यपुराण ''Matsyapurāṇa''
* विष्णुपुराण ''Viṣṇupurāṇa''
* ब्रह्माण्डपुराण ''Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa''
* गरुड़पुराण ''Garuḍapurāṇa''
* पद्मपुराण ''Padmapurāṇa''
* मार्कण्डेयपुराण ''Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa''
* लिङ्गपुराण ''Liṅgapurāṇa''
* भागवतपुराण ''Bhāgavatapurāṇa''
* भविष्यपुराण ''Bhaviṣyapurāṇa''
* कूर्मपुराण ''Kūrmapurāṇa''
* स्कन्दपुराण ''Skandapurāṇa''
* ब्रह्मवैवर्तपुराण ''Brahmávaivártapurāṇa''
* वामनपुराण ''Vāmanapurāṇa''
* शिवपुराण ''Śivapurāṇa''
* वराहपुराण ''Varāhapurāṇa''
* अग्निपुराण ''Agnipurāṇa''
* ब्रह्मपुराण ''Brahmāpurāṇa''
* नारदपुराण ''Nāradapurāṇa''
|-
|महापुराण
''Mahāpurāṇa''
|Major Ancient Texts (Jainism)
|
* उत्तरपुराण ''Uttarapurāṇa''
* आदिपुराण ''Ādipurāṇa''
|-
|四書五經
''Sì Shū Wǔ Jīng''
|Four Books and Five Classics
|
* 禮記·大學 ''Lǐ Jì · Dà Xué''
* 禮記·中庸 ''Lǐ Jì · Zhōng Yōng''
* 論語 ''Lún Yǔ''
* 孟子 ''Mèngzǐ''
* 詩經 ''Shī Jīng''
* 書經 ''Shū Jīng''
* 禮記 ''Lǐ Jì''
* 易經 ''Yì Jīng''
* 春秋 ''Chūn Qiū''
*
|-
|十三經
''Shísān Jīng''
|Thirteen Classics
|
* 儀禮 ''Yí Lǐ''
* 易經 ''Yì Jīng''
* 詩經 ''Shī Jīng''
* 孟子 ''Mèngzǐ''
* 孝經 ''Xiào Jīng''
* 春秋左氏傳 ''Chūnqiū Zuǒshì Zhuàn''
* 禮記 ''Lǐ Jì''
* 爾雅 ''Ěr Yǎ''
* 周禮 ''Zhōu Lǐ''
* 春秋公羊傳 ''Chūnqiū Gōngyáng Zhuàn''
* 春秋穀梁傳 ''Chūnqiū Gǔliáng Zhuàn''
* 書經 ''Shū Jīng''
* 論語 ''Lún Yǔ''
|-
|武經七書
''Wǔ Jīng Qī Shū''
|Seven Military Classics
|
* 孫子兵法 ''Sūnzǐ Bīngfǎ''
* 司馬法 ''Sīmǎ Fǎ''
* 吳子 ''Wúzǐ''
* 六韜 ''Liù Tāo''
* 尉繚子 ''Wèi Liáo Zǐ''
* 三略 ''Sān Lüè''
* 唐太宗李衛公問對 ''Táng Tàizōng Lǐ Wèigōng Wènduì''
|}

{{Reading-sites-menu}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Archaeological-Site-of-Aigai

2026-02-06T16:17:51Z

Marianth:

== Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina) ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient first capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, was discovered in the 19th century near Vergina, in northern Greece. The most important remains are the monumental palace, lavishly decorated with mosaics and painted stuccoes, and the burial ground with more than 300 tumuli, some of which date from the 11th century B.C. One of the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus is identified as that of Philip II, who conquered all the Greek cities, paving the way for his son Alexander and the expansion of the Hellenistic world.

== Outstanding Universal Value-Brief synthesis ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient royal capital of Macedon, was discovered in the 19th century. It is located between the modern villages of Palatitsia and Vergina, in Northern Greece (Region of Hemathia). At Aigai was rooted the royal dynasty of the Temenids, the family of Philip II and Alexander the Great. The Archaeological Site of Aigai, containing an urban center – the oldest and most important in Northern Greece – and several surrounded settlements, is defined by the rivers Haliakmon (W and N), Askordos (E), and the Pierian Mountains (S). Aigai provides important information about the culture, history and society of the ancient Macedonians, the Greek border tribe that preserved age-old traditions and carried Greek culture to the outer limits of the ancient world. The most important, already excavated, archaeological remains of the site are: the monumental palace (ca 340 BC), which was the biggest and one of the most impressive buildings of classical Greece, the theatre, the sanctuaries of Eukleia and the Mother of the Gods, the city walls, the royal necropolis, containing more than 500 tumuli, dating from the 11th to 2nd century BC. Three royal burial clusters have been already excavated. Twelve monumental temple-shaped tombs are known. Among them is the tomb of Euridice, mother of Philip II and the unlooted tombs of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, and his grandson, Alexander IV, which have been discovered in 1977-8 and made a worldwide sensation. The quality of the tombs themselves and their grave-goods places Aigai among the most important archaeological sites in Europe.

Criterion (i): Both the cemetery and the city contain original and unique historical, artistic and aesthetic achievements of the late classical art of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance, such as the architectural form of the royal palace and the magnificent wall paintings of the so-called Macedonian tombs, as well as objects such as the ivory portrait and miniature art, metal, gold and silver work. Many of these achievements were created by great artists of ancient Greece, such as Leochares and Nikomachos.

Criterion (iii): Τhe site represents an exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from the classical city state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents.

== Integrity ==
The World Heritage property contains within its boundaries all the key attributes that convey its Outstanding Universal Value. A zone of absolute protection, prohibiting any building activity, and containing the ancient city, its cemeteries and a Bronze-Age mount, ensures its integrity. A wider protection zone, with building restrictions, ensures more the integrity of site. Aigai provides some of the most complete, whole and intact ancient monuments, such as the palace and the sanctuaries, the so-called Macedonian tombs and complete specimens of rare pieces of ancient art. The archaeological research in the city and cemeteries in combination with the restoration projects running in the Palace and the Royal Necropolis, according to the site’s master plan and the national and international standards and regulations, have multiple and positive impact for the documentation and protection of the site. The natural setting, (semi-mountainous landscape, rivers, flora), which corresponds to the ancient urban territory and the cultural remains of the Macedonian royal center, emphasizes the integrity of the property.

== Authenticity ==
The Archaeological Site of Aigai, with its artistic and architectural remains testifies its authenticity, in terms of form, materials and setting. It is generally accepted that excavation, especially of earthen structures and deposits, is necessarily an act of destruction. The original Great Tumulus is therefore no longer in existence, and has been simulated in the cover structure. The protective shelter has been constructed in order to protect and ensure the authenticity of the royal tombs. Its tumulus-shaped form and the technical specifications are in complete harmony and respect to the monuments. However, the interiors of the tombs are entirely authentic, with only minimal modern interventions in order to preserve their continued stability. Elsewhere on the site (e.g. the palace) the remains are entirely authentic.

The subterranean temple-shaped tombs are amongst the best-preserved examples on the use of colour in ancient architecture, and their discovery revealed for the first time the intact façade of an ancient Greek building. The complete and emblematic form of the royal palace, based on philosophical, political and architectural notions (archetype of peristyle palatial buildings), served in antiquity and modern times as the prototype and a visual statement of the notion of the enlightened kingship. Some of the royal tombs have been sheltered. The protection of the monuments and their natural environment as a unit ensures the authentic context of the city and its cemeteries.

== Protection and management requirements ==
The property is a serial site with two components surrounded by an extensive buffer zone. It is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs, through the Ephorate of Antiquities of Hemathia, its competent Regional Service. The Archaeological Site of Aigai is protected under the provisions of Law No. 3028/2002 on the “Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in general”. Τhe protected Archaeological Site of Aigai (Ministerial Decree 35117/2019/2.8.95) is located inside a designated area of outstanding natural beauty (Decree of the Minister of Macedonia and Thrace No. 8383/92/28.1.1993). A zone of absolute protection has been established, covering the ancient city, the necropolis, and all the surrounding area within which antiquities have been discovered, as well as a buffer zone. Development pressures to the property are addressed by the implementation of the aforementioned legal framework and the constant control of the competent Ephorate.

A complete master plan, concerning the protection, restoration, visiting and information, in order to maintain the Outstanding Universal Value of the site in the long term, is approved by the Central Archaeological Council/Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs.

The project of the restoration, implantation and embellishment of the Royal Cemetery, funded by the EU, is completed and the area is open to the public, while the same project for the Royal Palace is in progress and the monument is partly accessible to the visitors. The new building of the Multi-Centre Museum of Aigai, also funded by the EU, is already constructed, and it will be open to the public as soon as the exhibition is completed. The Archaeological Site of Aigai has an ongoing systematic excavation. Furthermore, many conservation studies, archaeometric research and architectural restoration studies have been completed for the better understanding of the monuments, as well as the dissemination of historical and archaeological data. The funding of the projects comes from national and European resources.

The cluster of the royal tombs is protected by a tumulus-shaped shelter, the present Museum of the Royal Tombs at Aigai. All the items found in the cluster, the architectural buildings, wall paintings of the tombs are displayed in a secure and controlled environment. It constitutes a particularly original example of burial monuments sheltered in a modern underground museum.

The worldwide impact of the antiquities discovered in Aigai resulted in a massive turnout of visitors, for whom special facilities have been provided. The digital museum, entitled ‘’Alexander the Great: From Aigai to Oikoumene’’, is under construction. It will be based at Aigai, the ancient capital of Macedon and it will be interactively connected with others sites, museums and institutions worldwide and create an archaeological network showing the universal value of the site.

Source : UNESCO

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Archaeological-Site-of-Aigai

2026-02-06T16:02:53Z

Marianth:

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Archaeological-Site-of-Aigai

2026-02-06T15:48:36Z

Marianth:

[[File:Image 70462 Jpg.|bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II|left|thumb]]
== Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina) ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient first capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, was discovered in the 19th century near Vergina, in northern Greece. The most important remains are the monumental palace, lavishly decorated with mosaics and painted stuccoes, and the burial ground with more than 300 tumuli, some of which date from the 11th century B.C. One of the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus is identified as that of Philip II, who conquered all the Greek cities, paving the way for his son Alexander and the expansion of the Hellenistic world.

== Outstanding Universal Value-Brief synthesis ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient royal capital of Macedon, was discovered in the 19th century. It is located between the modern villages of Palatitsia and Vergina, in Northern Greece (Region of Hemathia). At Aigai was rooted the royal dynasty of the Temenids, the family of Philip II and Alexander the Great. The Archaeological Site of Aigai, containing an urban center – the oldest and most important in Northern Greece – and several surrounded settlements, is defined by the rivers Haliakmon (W and N), Askordos (E), and the Pierian Mountains (S). Aigai provides important information about the culture, history and society of the ancient Macedonians, the Greek border tribe that preserved age-old traditions and carried Greek culture to the outer limits of the ancient world. The most important, already excavated, archaeological remains of the site are: the monumental palace (ca 340 BC), which was the biggest and one of the most impressive buildings of classical Greece, the theatre, the sanctuaries of Eukleia and the Mother of the Gods, the city walls, the royal necropolis, containing more than 500 tumuli, dating from the 11th to 2nd century BC. Three royal burial clusters have been already excavated. Twelve monumental temple-shaped tombs are known. Among them is the tomb of Euridice, mother of Philip II and the unlooted tombs of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, and his grandson, Alexander IV, which have been discovered in 1977-8 and made a worldwide sensation. The quality of the tombs themselves and their grave-goods places Aigai among the most important archaeological sites in Europe.

Criterion (i): Both the cemetery and the city contain original and unique historical, artistic and aesthetic achievements of the late classical art of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance, such as the architectural form of the royal palace and the magnificent wall paintings of the so-called Macedonian tombs, as well as objects such as the ivory portrait and miniature art, metal, gold and silver work. Many of these achievements were created by great artists of ancient Greece, such as Leochares and Nikomachos.

Criterion (iii): Τhe site represents an exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from the classical city state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents.

== Integrity ==
The World Heritage property contains within its boundaries all the key attributes that convey its Outstanding Universal Value. A zone of absolute protection, prohibiting any building activity, and containing the ancient city, its cemeteries and a Bronze-Age mount, ensures its integrity. A wider protection zone, with building restrictions, ensures more the integrity of site. Aigai provides some of the most complete, whole and intact ancient monuments, such as the palace and the sanctuaries, the so-called Macedonian tombs and complete specimens of rare pieces of ancient art. The archaeological research in the city and cemeteries in combination with the restoration projects running in the Palace and the Royal Necropolis, according to the site’s master plan and the national and international standards and regulations, have multiple and positive impact for the documentation and protection of the site. The natural setting, (semi-mountainous landscape, rivers, flora), which corresponds to the ancient urban territory and the cultural remains of the Macedonian royal center, emphasizes the integrity of the property.

== Authenticity ==
The Archaeological Site of Aigai, with its artistic and architectural remains testifies its authenticity, in terms of form, materials and setting. It is generally accepted that excavation, especially of earthen structures and deposits, is necessarily an act of destruction. The original Great Tumulus is therefore no longer in existence, and has been simulated in the cover structure. The protective shelter has been constructed in order to protect and ensure the authenticity of the royal tombs. Its tumulus-shaped form and the technical specifications are in complete harmony and respect to the monuments. However, the interiors of the tombs are entirely authentic, with only minimal modern interventions in order to preserve their continued stability. Elsewhere on the site (e.g. the palace) the remains are entirely authentic.

The subterranean temple-shaped tombs are amongst the best-preserved examples on the use of colour in ancient architecture, and their discovery revealed for the first time the intact façade of an ancient Greek building. The complete and emblematic form of the royal palace, based on philosophical, political and architectural notions (archetype of peristyle palatial buildings), served in antiquity and modern times as the prototype and a visual statement of the notion of the enlightened kingship. Some of the royal tombs have been sheltered. The protection of the monuments and their natural environment as a unit ensures the authentic context of the city and its cemeteries.

== Protection and management requirements ==
The property is a serial site with two components surrounded by an extensive buffer zone. It is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs, through the Ephorate of Antiquities of Hemathia, its competent Regional Service. The Archaeological Site of Aigai is protected under the provisions of Law No. 3028/2002 on the “Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in general”. Τhe protected Archaeological Site of Aigai (Ministerial Decree 35117/2019/2.8.95) is located inside a designated area of outstanding natural beauty (Decree of the Minister of Macedonia and Thrace No. 8383/92/28.1.1993). A zone of absolute protection has been established, covering the ancient city, the necropolis, and all the surrounding area within which antiquities have been discovered, as well as a buffer zone. Development pressures to the property are addressed by the implementation of the aforementioned legal framework and the constant control of the competent Ephorate.

A complete master plan, concerning the protection, restoration, visiting and information, in order to maintain the Outstanding Universal Value of the site in the long term, is approved by the Central Archaeological Council/Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs.

The project of the restoration, implantation and embellishment of the Royal Cemetery, funded by the EU, is completed and the area is open to the public, while the same project for the Royal Palace is in progress and the monument is partly accessible to the visitors. The new building of the Multi-Centre Museum of Aigai, also funded by the EU, is already constructed, and it will be open to the public as soon as the exhibition is completed. The Archaeological Site of Aigai has an ongoing systematic excavation. Furthermore, many conservation studies, archaeometric research and architectural restoration studies have been completed for the better understanding of the monuments, as well as the dissemination of historical and archaeological data. The funding of the projects comes from national and European resources.

The cluster of the royal tombs is protected by a tumulus-shaped shelter, the present Museum of the Royal Tombs at Aigai. All the items found in the cluster, the architectural buildings, wall paintings of the tombs are displayed in a secure and controlled environment. It constitutes a particularly original example of burial monuments sheltered in a modern underground museum.

The worldwide impact of the antiquities discovered in Aigai resulted in a massive turnout of visitors, for whom special facilities have been provided. The digital museum, entitled ‘’Alexander the Great: From Aigai to Oikoumene’’, is under construction. It will be based at Aigai, the ancient capital of Macedon and it will be interactively connected with others sites, museums and institutions worldwide and create an archaeological network showing the universal value of the site.

Source : UNESCO

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

File:Gettyimages-955320574-1024x1024.jpeg

2026-02-06T12:24:45Z

Marianth: Marianth uploaded a new version of File:Gettyimages-955320574-1024x1024.jpeg

== Summary ==
Bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II

File:70462.jpeg

2026-02-06T12:24:02Z

Marianth: Bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II

== Summary ==
Bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II

File:Gettyimages-955320574-1024x1024.jpeg

2026-02-06T12:09:56Z

Marianth: Bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II

== Summary ==
Bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II

File:Image Jpg 70462.jpeg

2026-02-06T12:01:45Z

Marianth: bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II

== Summary ==
bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II

File:Image 70462-jpg.jpeg

2026-02-06T11:57:08Z

Marianth: bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II

== Summary ==
bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Archaeological-Site-of-Aigai

2026-02-06T11:51:37Z

Marianth:

[[File:Image 70462 Jpg.|center|bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II]]
== Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina) ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient first capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, was discovered in the 19th century near Vergina, in northern Greece. The most important remains are the monumental palace, lavishly decorated with mosaics and painted stuccoes, and the burial ground with more than 300 tumuli, some of which date from the 11th century B.C. One of the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus is identified as that of Philip II, who conquered all the Greek cities, paving the way for his son Alexander and the expansion of the Hellenistic world.

== Outstanding Universal Value-Brief synthesis ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient royal capital of Macedon, was discovered in the 19th century. It is located between the modern villages of Palatitsia and Vergina, in Northern Greece (Region of Hemathia). At Aigai was rooted the royal dynasty of the Temenids, the family of Philip II and Alexander the Great. The Archaeological Site of Aigai, containing an urban center – the oldest and most important in Northern Greece – and several surrounded settlements, is defined by the rivers Haliakmon (W and N), Askordos (E), and the Pierian Mountains (S). Aigai provides important information about the culture, history and society of the ancient Macedonians, the Greek border tribe that preserved age-old traditions and carried Greek culture to the outer limits of the ancient world. The most important, already excavated, archaeological remains of the site are: the monumental palace (ca 340 BC), which was the biggest and one of the most impressive buildings of classical Greece, the theatre, the sanctuaries of Eukleia and the Mother of the Gods, the city walls, the royal necropolis, containing more than 500 tumuli, dating from the 11th to 2nd century BC. Three royal burial clusters have been already excavated. Twelve monumental temple-shaped tombs are known. Among them is the tomb of Euridice, mother of Philip II and the unlooted tombs of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, and his grandson, Alexander IV, which have been discovered in 1977-8 and made a worldwide sensation. The quality of the tombs themselves and their grave-goods places Aigai among the most important archaeological sites in Europe.

Criterion (i): Both the cemetery and the city contain original and unique historical, artistic and aesthetic achievements of the late classical art of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance, such as the architectural form of the royal palace and the magnificent wall paintings of the so-called Macedonian tombs, as well as objects such as the ivory portrait and miniature art, metal, gold and silver work. Many of these achievements were created by great artists of ancient Greece, such as Leochares and Nikomachos.

Criterion (iii): Τhe site represents an exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from the classical city state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents.

== Integrity ==
The World Heritage property contains within its boundaries all the key attributes that convey its Outstanding Universal Value. A zone of absolute protection, prohibiting any building activity, and containing the ancient city, its cemeteries and a Bronze-Age mount, ensures its integrity. A wider protection zone, with building restrictions, ensures more the integrity of site. Aigai provides some of the most complete, whole and intact ancient monuments, such as the palace and the sanctuaries, the so-called Macedonian tombs and complete specimens of rare pieces of ancient art. The archaeological research in the city and cemeteries in combination with the restoration projects running in the Palace and the Royal Necropolis, according to the site’s master plan and the national and international standards and regulations, have multiple and positive impact for the documentation and protection of the site. The natural setting, (semi-mountainous landscape, rivers, flora), which corresponds to the ancient urban territory and the cultural remains of the Macedonian royal center, emphasizes the integrity of the property.

== Authenticity ==
The Archaeological Site of Aigai, with its artistic and architectural remains testifies its authenticity, in terms of form, materials and setting. It is generally accepted that excavation, especially of earthen structures and deposits, is necessarily an act of destruction. The original Great Tumulus is therefore no longer in existence, and has been simulated in the cover structure. The protective shelter has been constructed in order to protect and ensure the authenticity of the royal tombs. Its tumulus-shaped form and the technical specifications are in complete harmony and respect to the monuments. However, the interiors of the tombs are entirely authentic, with only minimal modern interventions in order to preserve their continued stability. Elsewhere on the site (e.g. the palace) the remains are entirely authentic.

The subterranean temple-shaped tombs are amongst the best-preserved examples on the use of colour in ancient architecture, and their discovery revealed for the first time the intact façade of an ancient Greek building. The complete and emblematic form of the royal palace, based on philosophical, political and architectural notions (archetype of peristyle palatial buildings), served in antiquity and modern times as the prototype and a visual statement of the notion of the enlightened kingship. Some of the royal tombs have been sheltered. The protection of the monuments and their natural environment as a unit ensures the authentic context of the city and its cemeteries.

== Protection and management requirements ==
The property is a serial site with two components surrounded by an extensive buffer zone. It is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs, through the Ephorate of Antiquities of Hemathia, its competent Regional Service. The Archaeological Site of Aigai is protected under the provisions of Law No. 3028/2002 on the “Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in general”. Τhe protected Archaeological Site of Aigai (Ministerial Decree 35117/2019/2.8.95) is located inside a designated area of outstanding natural beauty (Decree of the Minister of Macedonia and Thrace No. 8383/92/28.1.1993). A zone of absolute protection has been established, covering the ancient city, the necropolis, and all the surrounding area within which antiquities have been discovered, as well as a buffer zone. Development pressures to the property are addressed by the implementation of the aforementioned legal framework and the constant control of the competent Ephorate.

A complete master plan, concerning the protection, restoration, visiting and information, in order to maintain the Outstanding Universal Value of the site in the long term, is approved by the Central Archaeological Council/Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs.

The project of the restoration, implantation and embellishment of the Royal Cemetery, funded by the EU, is completed and the area is open to the public, while the same project for the Royal Palace is in progress and the monument is partly accessible to the visitors. The new building of the Multi-Centre Museum of Aigai, also funded by the EU, is already constructed, and it will be open to the public as soon as the exhibition is completed. The Archaeological Site of Aigai has an ongoing systematic excavation. Furthermore, many conservation studies, archaeometric research and architectural restoration studies have been completed for the better understanding of the monuments, as well as the dissemination of historical and archaeological data. The funding of the projects comes from national and European resources.

The cluster of the royal tombs is protected by a tumulus-shaped shelter, the present Museum of the Royal Tombs at Aigai. All the items found in the cluster, the architectural buildings, wall paintings of the tombs are displayed in a secure and controlled environment. It constitutes a particularly original example of burial monuments sheltered in a modern underground museum.

The worldwide impact of the antiquities discovered in Aigai resulted in a massive turnout of visitors, for whom special facilities have been provided. The digital museum, entitled ‘’Alexander the Great: From Aigai to Oikoumene’’, is under construction. It will be based at Aigai, the ancient capital of Macedon and it will be interactively connected with others sites, museums and institutions worldwide and create an archaeological network showing the universal value of the site.

Source : UNESCO

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Archaeological-Site-of-Aigai

2026-02-06T11:50:07Z

Marianth:

<ref>70462 jpg </ref>
== Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina) ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient first capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, was discovered in the 19th century near Vergina, in northern Greece. The most important remains are the monumental palace, lavishly decorated with mosaics and painted stuccoes, and the burial ground with more than 300 tumuli, some of which date from the 11th century B.C. One of the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus is identified as that of Philip II, who conquered all the Greek cities, paving the way for his son Alexander and the expansion of the Hellenistic world.

== Outstanding Universal Value-Brief synthesis ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient royal capital of Macedon, was discovered in the 19th century. It is located between the modern villages of Palatitsia and Vergina, in Northern Greece (Region of Hemathia). At Aigai was rooted the royal dynasty of the Temenids, the family of Philip II and Alexander the Great. The Archaeological Site of Aigai, containing an urban center – the oldest and most important in Northern Greece – and several surrounded settlements, is defined by the rivers Haliakmon (W and N), Askordos (E), and the Pierian Mountains (S). Aigai provides important information about the culture, history and society of the ancient Macedonians, the Greek border tribe that preserved age-old traditions and carried Greek culture to the outer limits of the ancient world. The most important, already excavated, archaeological remains of the site are: the monumental palace (ca 340 BC), which was the biggest and one of the most impressive buildings of classical Greece, the theatre, the sanctuaries of Eukleia and the Mother of the Gods, the city walls, the royal necropolis, containing more than 500 tumuli, dating from the 11th to 2nd century BC. Three royal burial clusters have been already excavated. Twelve monumental temple-shaped tombs are known. Among them is the tomb of Euridice, mother of Philip II and the unlooted tombs of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, and his grandson, Alexander IV, which have been discovered in 1977-8 and made a worldwide sensation. The quality of the tombs themselves and their grave-goods places Aigai among the most important archaeological sites in Europe.

Criterion (i): Both the cemetery and the city contain original and unique historical, artistic and aesthetic achievements of the late classical art of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance, such as the architectural form of the royal palace and the magnificent wall paintings of the so-called Macedonian tombs, as well as objects such as the ivory portrait and miniature art, metal, gold and silver work. Many of these achievements were created by great artists of ancient Greece, such as Leochares and Nikomachos.

Criterion (iii): Τhe site represents an exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from the classical city state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents.

== Integrity ==
The World Heritage property contains within its boundaries all the key attributes that convey its Outstanding Universal Value. A zone of absolute protection, prohibiting any building activity, and containing the ancient city, its cemeteries and a Bronze-Age mount, ensures its integrity. A wider protection zone, with building restrictions, ensures more the integrity of site. Aigai provides some of the most complete, whole and intact ancient monuments, such as the palace and the sanctuaries, the so-called Macedonian tombs and complete specimens of rare pieces of ancient art. The archaeological research in the city and cemeteries in combination with the restoration projects running in the Palace and the Royal Necropolis, according to the site’s master plan and the national and international standards and regulations, have multiple and positive impact for the documentation and protection of the site. The natural setting, (semi-mountainous landscape, rivers, flora), which corresponds to the ancient urban territory and the cultural remains of the Macedonian royal center, emphasizes the integrity of the property.

== Authenticity ==
The Archaeological Site of Aigai, with its artistic and architectural remains testifies its authenticity, in terms of form, materials and setting. It is generally accepted that excavation, especially of earthen structures and deposits, is necessarily an act of destruction. The original Great Tumulus is therefore no longer in existence, and has been simulated in the cover structure. The protective shelter has been constructed in order to protect and ensure the authenticity of the royal tombs. Its tumulus-shaped form and the technical specifications are in complete harmony and respect to the monuments. However, the interiors of the tombs are entirely authentic, with only minimal modern interventions in order to preserve their continued stability. Elsewhere on the site (e.g. the palace) the remains are entirely authentic.

The subterranean temple-shaped tombs are amongst the best-preserved examples on the use of colour in ancient architecture, and their discovery revealed for the first time the intact façade of an ancient Greek building. The complete and emblematic form of the royal palace, based on philosophical, political and architectural notions (archetype of peristyle palatial buildings), served in antiquity and modern times as the prototype and a visual statement of the notion of the enlightened kingship. Some of the royal tombs have been sheltered. The protection of the monuments and their natural environment as a unit ensures the authentic context of the city and its cemeteries.

== Protection and management requirements ==
The property is a serial site with two components surrounded by an extensive buffer zone. It is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs, through the Ephorate of Antiquities of Hemathia, its competent Regional Service. The Archaeological Site of Aigai is protected under the provisions of Law No. 3028/2002 on the “Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in general”. Τhe protected Archaeological Site of Aigai (Ministerial Decree 35117/2019/2.8.95) is located inside a designated area of outstanding natural beauty (Decree of the Minister of Macedonia and Thrace No. 8383/92/28.1.1993). A zone of absolute protection has been established, covering the ancient city, the necropolis, and all the surrounding area within which antiquities have been discovered, as well as a buffer zone. Development pressures to the property are addressed by the implementation of the aforementioned legal framework and the constant control of the competent Ephorate.

A complete master plan, concerning the protection, restoration, visiting and information, in order to maintain the Outstanding Universal Value of the site in the long term, is approved by the Central Archaeological Council/Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs.

The project of the restoration, implantation and embellishment of the Royal Cemetery, funded by the EU, is completed and the area is open to the public, while the same project for the Royal Palace is in progress and the monument is partly accessible to the visitors. The new building of the Multi-Centre Museum of Aigai, also funded by the EU, is already constructed, and it will be open to the public as soon as the exhibition is completed. The Archaeological Site of Aigai has an ongoing systematic excavation. Furthermore, many conservation studies, archaeometric research and architectural restoration studies have been completed for the better understanding of the monuments, as well as the dissemination of historical and archaeological data. The funding of the projects comes from national and European resources.

The cluster of the royal tombs is protected by a tumulus-shaped shelter, the present Museum of the Royal Tombs at Aigai. All the items found in the cluster, the architectural buildings, wall paintings of the tombs are displayed in a secure and controlled environment. It constitutes a particularly original example of burial monuments sheltered in a modern underground museum.

The worldwide impact of the antiquities discovered in Aigai resulted in a massive turnout of visitors, for whom special facilities have been provided. The digital museum, entitled ‘’Alexander the Great: From Aigai to Oikoumene’’, is under construction. It will be based at Aigai, the ancient capital of Macedon and it will be interactively connected with others sites, museums and institutions worldwide and create an archaeological network showing the universal value of the site.

Source : UNESCO

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

File:Image 70462 Jpg.jpg

2026-02-06T11:43:46Z

Marianth:

Bouclier d'apparat de Philippe II

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Archaeological-Site-of-Aigai

2026-02-06T11:29:43Z

Marianth: Nouvelle leçon

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/The-Phaistos-Disc

2026-01-27T11:56:49Z

Marianth:

[[File:Cover-r4x3w1200-57df76965ed27-le-disque-de-phaistos-donne-de-la-voix.png|right|disque de phaistos]]
== The Phaistos Disc ==
The Phaistos Disc remains one of the most enigmatic objects of the Bronze Age. The prevailing perception that the object is unique of its kind, based mainly on epigraphy and iconography, has led to various interpretations, some of them quite far-fetched, and given rise to theories casting doubt on its authenticity. Recent studies examining the material substance of the object, i.e. the shape, the material and the techniques used in its manufacture, reveal that this exceptional artefact is directly linked to the cultural environment that created it, namely the area of the Messara and the palace of Phaistos at the end of the Protopalatial and the beginning of the Neopalatial period ( around 1700/1650 BC).According to the excavation diary compiled by the field director, archaeologist Luigi Pernier, the disc was discovered at 7 p.m. on 3 July 1908, by Zacharias Eliakis, a trusted master craftsman of the Italian Mission at Phaistos. That afternoon Eliakis was supervising the work, while Pernier had returned to the mission house in Vori in order to draft a letter to the Director of the School. He had just completed and signed the letter when Eliakis arrived with the object. Dusk had fallen, and Pernier, examining the object, which was still half-covered with dirt, in the scant light, noted the existence of writing marks on only one side. Shocked by the discovery, he added the following paragraph to the end of the letter:

"I am delighted to announce that tonight we found in the new excavation NE of the plateau of the acropolis of Phaistos a clay disc (diam. 0.16) covered with Minoan pictographic signs (over a hundred) stamped in concentric circles. We are faced with one of the most important monuments of early Cretan writing."

The next day Pernier went to the excavation, asked Eliakis to show him the location of the find and recorded the information in the excavation diary. After cleaning, it was discovered that the object also bore writing on the other side.

== Unique features ==
The disc is made of very pure, fine clay, like that used for Kamares eggshell ware. Its shape is not a perfect circle; its diameter ranges from 158 to 165 mm. Its surface is not perfectly smooth, with a thickness ranging from 16 to 21 mm because it was made by hand, by pressing a piece of clay onto a flat surface rather than using a mould. The writing signs, 242 in all, are arranged within a spiral frame incised by the craftsman as a guide with the aid of a pin. They run from the outside of the disc to the centre, and were impressed into the raw clay with stamps. A total of 45 different signs make up 61 different groups of two to seven signs, separated by vertical incisions and apparently corresponding to words. The direction of reading was probably from the outside to the centre, starting with a vertical line of five dots.

Side A was probably made first. Once the text was impressed in the clay, the disc was fired. The firing was probably deliberate, as it was done so perfectly that the surface acquired a smooth texture and an attractive yellowish colour. It seems that the intention of its makers was to preserve it for a long period of time.

== Script ==
The writing on the disc is contemporary with Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A, two scripts that developed in parallel during the Protopalatial period either in different geographical areas or for different purposes. Cretan Hieroglyphic, so called because of its external similarity to Egyptian hieroglyphics, was in fact a syllabic script (each sign corresponding to a syllable rather than a concept) like Linear A and later Linear B. Similarly, the pictorial signs on the Phaistos Disc are not ideograms but syllables, which when grouped together form words.

There are a total of 61 such groups of signs on each side, i.e. 61 words. The text on each side, however, is different. The differences with Cretan Hieroglyphic are partly due to the fact that the signs on the disc were not incised but stamped. There is disagreement about the direction of reading, but most people agree that it followed the direction of the engraving of the frame, i.e. from left to right and from the outside to the centre.

== Problems of interpretation ==
The Minoan language recorded on the disc is currently unknown to us, and this is the biggest obstacle to understanding its content. Nevertheless, numerous attempts have been made to decode the writing and interpret the inscription, many of which are pure speculation. At present, only a few observations can be made. Eleven of the 61 sets of signs (words) begin with the same signs (a head with a characteristic hairstyle and a circle with seven points). There are also sets of signs that are repeated (e.g. ox foot and walking man, flying bird and ox horns, oar, head and rosette). The repetition of certain sets has led some to assume that they are religious hymns or magical texts. It has also been suggested that the disc is an astronomical calendar. However, the interpretation of the text will only be possible once we have understood and deciphered Cretan Hieroglyphics and Linear A.

Source : Musée Messara - Crète

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/The-Phaistos-Disc

2026-01-27T11:48:07Z

Marianth:

[[{2-104795.jpg}|thumb|disque de phaistos]]
== The Phaistos Disc ==
The Phaistos Disc remains one of the most enigmatic objects of the Bronze Age. The prevailing perception that the object is unique of its kind, based mainly on epigraphy and iconography, has led to various interpretations, some of them quite far-fetched, and given rise to theories casting doubt on its authenticity. Recent studies examining the material substance of the object, i.e. the shape, the material and the techniques used in its manufacture, reveal that this exceptional artefact is directly linked to the cultural environment that created it, namely the area of the Messara and the palace of Phaistos at the end of the Protopalatial and the beginning of the Neopalatial period ( around 1700/1650 BC).According to the excavation diary compiled by the field director, archaeologist Luigi Pernier, the disc was discovered at 7 p.m. on 3 July 1908, by Zacharias Eliakis, a trusted master craftsman of the Italian Mission at Phaistos. That afternoon Eliakis was supervising the work, while Pernier had returned to the mission house in Vori in order to draft a letter to the Director of the School. He had just completed and signed the letter when Eliakis arrived with the object. Dusk had fallen, and Pernier, examining the object, which was still half-covered with dirt, in the scant light, noted the existence of writing marks on only one side. Shocked by the discovery, he added the following paragraph to the end of the letter:

"I am delighted to announce that tonight we found in the new excavation NE of the plateau of the acropolis of Phaistos a clay disc (diam. 0.16) covered with Minoan pictographic signs (over a hundred) stamped in concentric circles. We are faced with one of the most important monuments of early Cretan writing."

The next day Pernier went to the excavation, asked Eliakis to show him the location of the find and recorded the information in the excavation diary. After cleaning, it was discovered that the object also bore writing on the other side.

== Unique features ==
The disc is made of very pure, fine clay, like that used for Kamares eggshell ware. Its shape is not a perfect circle; its diameter ranges from 158 to 165 mm. Its surface is not perfectly smooth, with a thickness ranging from 16 to 21 mm because it was made by hand, by pressing a piece of clay onto a flat surface rather than using a mould. The writing signs, 242 in all, are arranged within a spiral frame incised by the craftsman as a guide with the aid of a pin. They run from the outside of the disc to the centre, and were impressed into the raw clay with stamps. A total of 45 different signs make up 61 different groups of two to seven signs, separated by vertical incisions and apparently corresponding to words. The direction of reading was probably from the outside to the centre, starting with a vertical line of five dots.

Side A was probably made first. Once the text was impressed in the clay, the disc was fired. The firing was probably deliberate, as it was done so perfectly that the surface acquired a smooth texture and an attractive yellowish colour. It seems that the intention of its makers was to preserve it for a long period of time.

== Script ==
The writing on the disc is contemporary with Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A, two scripts that developed in parallel during the Protopalatial period either in different geographical areas or for different purposes. Cretan Hieroglyphic, so called because of its external similarity to Egyptian hieroglyphics, was in fact a syllabic script (each sign corresponding to a syllable rather than a concept) like Linear A and later Linear B. Similarly, the pictorial signs on the Phaistos Disc are not ideograms but syllables, which when grouped together form words.

There are a total of 61 such groups of signs on each side, i.e. 61 words. The text on each side, however, is different. The differences with Cretan Hieroglyphic are partly due to the fact that the signs on the disc were not incised but stamped. There is disagreement about the direction of reading, but most people agree that it followed the direction of the engraving of the frame, i.e. from left to right and from the outside to the centre.

== Problems of interpretation ==
The Minoan language recorded on the disc is currently unknown to us, and this is the biggest obstacle to understanding its content. Nevertheless, numerous attempts have been made to decode the writing and interpret the inscription, many of which are pure speculation. At present, only a few observations can be made. Eleven of the 61 sets of signs (words) begin with the same signs (a head with a characteristic hairstyle and a circle with seven points). There are also sets of signs that are repeated (e.g. ox foot and walking man, flying bird and ox horns, oar, head and rosette). The repetition of certain sets has led some to assume that they are religious hymns or magical texts. It has also been suggested that the disc is an astronomical calendar. However, the interpretation of the text will only be possible once we have understood and deciphered Cretan Hieroglyphics and Linear A.

Source : Musée Messara - Crète

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

File:Cover-r4x3w1200-57df76965ed27-le-disque-de-phaistos-donne-de-la-voix.png

2026-01-27T11:38:34Z

Marianth:

disque de Phaistos

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/The-Phaistos-Disc

2026-01-27T11:33:54Z

Marianth:

[[{2-104795.jpg}|disque de Phaistos ]]
== The Phaistos Disc ==
The Phaistos Disc remains one of the most enigmatic objects of the Bronze Age. The prevailing perception that the object is unique of its kind, based mainly on epigraphy and iconography, has led to various interpretations, some of them quite far-fetched, and given rise to theories casting doubt on its authenticity. Recent studies examining the material substance of the object, i.e. the shape, the material and the techniques used in its manufacture, reveal that this exceptional artefact is directly linked to the cultural environment that created it, namely the area of the Messara and the palace of Phaistos at the end of the Protopalatial and the beginning of the Neopalatial period ( around 1700/1650 BC).According to the excavation diary compiled by the field director, archaeologist Luigi Pernier, the disc was discovered at 7 p.m. on 3 July 1908, by Zacharias Eliakis, a trusted master craftsman of the Italian Mission at Phaistos. That afternoon Eliakis was supervising the work, while Pernier had returned to the mission house in Vori in order to draft a letter to the Director of the School. He had just completed and signed the letter when Eliakis arrived with the object. Dusk had fallen, and Pernier, examining the object, which was still half-covered with dirt, in the scant light, noted the existence of writing marks on only one side. Shocked by the discovery, he added the following paragraph to the end of the letter:

"I am delighted to announce that tonight we found in the new excavation NE of the plateau of the acropolis of Phaistos a clay disc (diam. 0.16) covered with Minoan pictographic signs (over a hundred) stamped in concentric circles. We are faced with one of the most important monuments of early Cretan writing."

The next day Pernier went to the excavation, asked Eliakis to show him the location of the find and recorded the information in the excavation diary. After cleaning, it was discovered that the object also bore writing on the other side.

== Unique features ==
The disc is made of very pure, fine clay, like that used for Kamares eggshell ware. Its shape is not a perfect circle; its diameter ranges from 158 to 165 mm. Its surface is not perfectly smooth, with a thickness ranging from 16 to 21 mm because it was made by hand, by pressing a piece of clay onto a flat surface rather than using a mould. The writing signs, 242 in all, are arranged within a spiral frame incised by the craftsman as a guide with the aid of a pin. They run from the outside of the disc to the centre, and were impressed into the raw clay with stamps. A total of 45 different signs make up 61 different groups of two to seven signs, separated by vertical incisions and apparently corresponding to words. The direction of reading was probably from the outside to the centre, starting with a vertical line of five dots.

Side A was probably made first. Once the text was impressed in the clay, the disc was fired. The firing was probably deliberate, as it was done so perfectly that the surface acquired a smooth texture and an attractive yellowish colour. It seems that the intention of its makers was to preserve it for a long period of time.

== Script ==
The writing on the disc is contemporary with Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A, two scripts that developed in parallel during the Protopalatial period either in different geographical areas or for different purposes. Cretan Hieroglyphic, so called because of its external similarity to Egyptian hieroglyphics, was in fact a syllabic script (each sign corresponding to a syllable rather than a concept) like Linear A and later Linear B. Similarly, the pictorial signs on the Phaistos Disc are not ideograms but syllables, which when grouped together form words.

There are a total of 61 such groups of signs on each side, i.e. 61 words. The text on each side, however, is different. The differences with Cretan Hieroglyphic are partly due to the fact that the signs on the disc were not incised but stamped. There is disagreement about the direction of reading, but most people agree that it followed the direction of the engraving of the frame, i.e. from left to right and from the outside to the centre.

== Problems of interpretation ==
The Minoan language recorded on the disc is currently unknown to us, and this is the biggest obstacle to understanding its content. Nevertheless, numerous attempts have been made to decode the writing and interpret the inscription, many of which are pure speculation. At present, only a few observations can be made. Eleven of the 61 sets of signs (words) begin with the same signs (a head with a characteristic hairstyle and a circle with seven points). There are also sets of signs that are repeated (e.g. ox foot and walking man, flying bird and ox horns, oar, head and rosette). The repetition of certain sets has led some to assume that they are religious hymns or magical texts. It has also been suggested that the disc is an astronomical calendar. However, the interpretation of the text will only be possible once we have understood and deciphered Cretan Hieroglyphics and Linear A.

Source : Musée Messara - Crète

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/The-Phaistos-Disc

2026-01-27T11:29:41Z

Marianth: Nouvelle leçon

== The Phaistos Disc ==
The Phaistos Disc remains one of the most enigmatic objects of the Bronze Age. The prevailing perception that the object is unique of its kind, based mainly on epigraphy and iconography, has led to various interpretations, some of them quite far-fetched, and given rise to theories casting doubt on its authenticity. Recent studies examining the material substance of the object, i.e. the shape, the material and the techniques used in its manufacture, reveal that this exceptional artefact is directly linked to the cultural environment that created it, namely the area of the Messara and the palace of Phaistos at the end of the Protopalatial and the beginning of the Neopalatial period ( around 1700/1650 BC).According to the excavation diary compiled by the field director, archaeologist Luigi Pernier, the disc was discovered at 7 p.m. on 3 July 1908, by Zacharias Eliakis, a trusted master craftsman of the Italian Mission at Phaistos. That afternoon Eliakis was supervising the work, while Pernier had returned to the mission house in Vori in order to draft a letter to the Director of the School. He had just completed and signed the letter when Eliakis arrived with the object. Dusk had fallen, and Pernier, examining the object, which was still half-covered with dirt, in the scant light, noted the existence of writing marks on only one side. Shocked by the discovery, he added the following paragraph to the end of the letter:

"I am delighted to announce that tonight we found in the new excavation NE of the plateau of the acropolis of Phaistos a clay disc (diam. 0.16) covered with Minoan pictographic signs (over a hundred) stamped in concentric circles. We are faced with one of the most important monuments of early Cretan writing."

The next day Pernier went to the excavation, asked Eliakis to show him the location of the find and recorded the information in the excavation diary. After cleaning, it was discovered that the object also bore writing on the other side.

== Unique features ==
The disc is made of very pure, fine clay, like that used for Kamares eggshell ware. Its shape is not a perfect circle; its diameter ranges from 158 to 165 mm. Its surface is not perfectly smooth, with a thickness ranging from 16 to 21 mm because it was made by hand, by pressing a piece of clay onto a flat surface rather than using a mould. The writing signs, 242 in all, are arranged within a spiral frame incised by the craftsman as a guide with the aid of a pin. They run from the outside of the disc to the centre, and were impressed into the raw clay with stamps. A total of 45 different signs make up 61 different groups of two to seven signs, separated by vertical incisions and apparently corresponding to words. The direction of reading was probably from the outside to the centre, starting with a vertical line of five dots.

Side A was probably made first. Once the text was impressed in the clay, the disc was fired. The firing was probably deliberate, as it was done so perfectly that the surface acquired a smooth texture and an attractive yellowish colour. It seems that the intention of its makers was to preserve it for a long period of time.

== Script ==
The writing on the disc is contemporary with Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A, two scripts that developed in parallel during the Protopalatial period either in different geographical areas or for different purposes. Cretan Hieroglyphic, so called because of its external similarity to Egyptian hieroglyphics, was in fact a syllabic script (each sign corresponding to a syllable rather than a concept) like Linear A and later Linear B. Similarly, the pictorial signs on the Phaistos Disc are not ideograms but syllables, which when grouped together form words.

There are a total of 61 such groups of signs on each side, i.e. 61 words. The text on each side, however, is different. The differences with Cretan Hieroglyphic are partly due to the fact that the signs on the disc were not incised but stamped. There is disagreement about the direction of reading, but most people agree that it followed the direction of the engraving of the frame, i.e. from left to right and from the outside to the centre.

== Problems of interpretation ==
The Minoan language recorded on the disc is currently unknown to us, and this is the biggest obstacle to understanding its content. Nevertheless, numerous attempts have been made to decode the writing and interpret the inscription, many of which are pure speculation. At present, only a few observations can be made. Eleven of the 61 sets of signs (words) begin with the same signs (a head with a characteristic hairstyle and a circle with seven points). There are also sets of signs that are repeated (e.g. ox foot and walking man, flying bird and ox horns, oar, head and rosette). The repetition of certain sets has led some to assume that they are religious hymns or magical texts. It has also been suggested that the disc is an astronomical calendar. However, the interpretation of the text will only be possible once we have understood and deciphered Cretan Hieroglyphics and Linear A.

Source : Musée Messara - Crète

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Lysistrata-by-Aristophanes

2026-01-24T11:29:14Z

Marianth:

[[File:1591 jgp|Lysistrata]]
== Lysistrata by Aristophanes ==
Lysistrata is an ancient pacifist comedy by Aristophanes, written and performed in 411 BC. It is considered one of the earliest and most iconic pacifist plays.

The plot recounts a sex strike led by the women of Athens and Sparta to try to convince their husbands to end the Peloponnesian War.

Lysistrata is one of the earliest and perhaps the most famous erotic comedies ever written. The women, led by Lysistrata, decide to end the war and restore peace to their country. Among them, besides Lysistrata, are the Athenian Cleonice, the young woman Murrhine, and the Spartan Lampito. The original idea comes from Lysistrata, who, for this reason, secretly invites all the Athenian women and representatives from other ancient city-states. The women gather, but when Lysistrata proposes they take a vow of sexual abstinence until the men decide to end the war, they initially oppose it. Finally, after much hesitation, they are persuaded when the Spartan woman Lampito also actively participates in her plan. The decision is sealed with an oath over a glass of wine. The women's plan also triumphs in Sparta; a Spartan herald arrives and asks the Athenians to appoint representatives to begin peace negotiations. The Spartan and Athenian envoys turn to Lysistrata to help find a compromise. Thanks to her striking beauty, Lysistrata succeeds in embodying reconciliation between the two states. This play represents one of Aristophanes' masterpieces. It is his last attempt to establish peace. At the end of the play, peace is achieved through mutual concessions.

The reconciliation is sealed by the Spartan bard, who invokes and praises deities that the Athenians also recognize and venerate. With its sophisticated structure, its wealth of comic elements, and its magnificent themes of peace, reconciliation, and the role of women in the family, society, and state, this comedy continues to be performed and read with great success throughout the world.

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Lysistrata-by-Aristophanes

2026-01-24T11:27:05Z

Marianth:

[[File:1591 jgp|thumb|alt=Lysistrata|Lysistrata]]
== Lysistrata by Aristophanes ==
Lysistrata is an ancient pacifist comedy by Aristophanes, written and performed in 411 BC. It is considered one of the earliest and most iconic pacifist plays.

The plot recounts a sex strike led by the women of Athens and Sparta to try to convince their husbands to end the Peloponnesian War.

Lysistrata is one of the earliest and perhaps the most famous erotic comedies ever written. The women, led by Lysistrata, decide to end the war and restore peace to their country. Among them, besides Lysistrata, are the Athenian Cleonice, the young woman Murrhine, and the Spartan Lampito. The original idea comes from Lysistrata, who, for this reason, secretly invites all the Athenian women and representatives from other ancient city-states. The women gather, but when Lysistrata proposes they take a vow of sexual abstinence until the men decide to end the war, they initially oppose it. Finally, after much hesitation, they are persuaded when the Spartan woman Lampito also actively participates in her plan. The decision is sealed with an oath over a glass of wine. The women's plan also triumphs in Sparta; a Spartan herald arrives and asks the Athenians to appoint representatives to begin peace negotiations. The Spartan and Athenian envoys turn to Lysistrata to help find a compromise. Thanks to her striking beauty, Lysistrata succeeds in embodying reconciliation between the two states. This play represents one of Aristophanes' masterpieces. It is his last attempt to establish peace. At the end of the play, peace is achieved through mutual concessions.

The reconciliation is sealed by the Spartan bard, who invokes and praises deities that the Athenians also recognize and venerate. With its sophisticated structure, its wealth of comic elements, and its magnificent themes of peace, reconciliation, and the role of women in the family, society, and state, this comedy continues to be performed and read with great success throughout the world.

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Lysistrata-by-Aristophanes

2026-01-24T11:24:55Z

Marianth:

[[File:
[[File:1591|thumb|Lysistrata]]
||thumb|Lysistrata]]
== Lysistrata by Aristophanes ==
Lysistrata is an ancient pacifist comedy by Aristophanes, written and performed in 411 BC. It is considered one of the earliest and most iconic pacifist plays.

The plot recounts a sex strike led by the women of Athens and Sparta to try to convince their husbands to end the Peloponnesian War.

Lysistrata is one of the earliest and perhaps the most famous erotic comedies ever written. The women, led by Lysistrata, decide to end the war and restore peace to their country. Among them, besides Lysistrata, are the Athenian Cleonice, the young woman Murrhine, and the Spartan Lampito. The original idea comes from Lysistrata, who, for this reason, secretly invites all the Athenian women and representatives from other ancient city-states. The women gather, but when Lysistrata proposes they take a vow of sexual abstinence until the men decide to end the war, they initially oppose it. Finally, after much hesitation, they are persuaded when the Spartan woman Lampito also actively participates in her plan. The decision is sealed with an oath over a glass of wine. The women's plan also triumphs in Sparta; a Spartan herald arrives and asks the Athenians to appoint representatives to begin peace negotiations. The Spartan and Athenian envoys turn to Lysistrata to help find a compromise. Thanks to her striking beauty, Lysistrata succeeds in embodying reconciliation between the two states. This play represents one of Aristophanes' masterpieces. It is his last attempt to establish peace. At the end of the play, peace is achieved through mutual concessions.

The reconciliation is sealed by the Spartan bard, who invokes and praises deities that the Athenians also recognize and venerate. With its sophisticated structure, its wealth of comic elements, and its magnificent themes of peace, reconciliation, and the role of women in the family, society, and state, this comedy continues to be performed and read with great success throughout the world.

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Lysistrata-by-Aristophanes

2026-01-24T11:24:06Z

Marianth:

[[File:1591||thumb|Lysistrata]]
== Lysistrata by Aristophanes ==
Lysistrata is an ancient pacifist comedy by Aristophanes, written and performed in 411 BC. It is considered one of the earliest and most iconic pacifist plays.

The plot recounts a sex strike led by the women of Athens and Sparta to try to convince their husbands to end the Peloponnesian War.

Lysistrata is one of the earliest and perhaps the most famous erotic comedies ever written. The women, led by Lysistrata, decide to end the war and restore peace to their country. Among them, besides Lysistrata, are the Athenian Cleonice, the young woman Murrhine, and the Spartan Lampito. The original idea comes from Lysistrata, who, for this reason, secretly invites all the Athenian women and representatives from other ancient city-states. The women gather, but when Lysistrata proposes they take a vow of sexual abstinence until the men decide to end the war, they initially oppose it. Finally, after much hesitation, they are persuaded when the Spartan woman Lampito also actively participates in her plan. The decision is sealed with an oath over a glass of wine. The women's plan also triumphs in Sparta; a Spartan herald arrives and asks the Athenians to appoint representatives to begin peace negotiations. The Spartan and Athenian envoys turn to Lysistrata to help find a compromise. Thanks to her striking beauty, Lysistrata succeeds in embodying reconciliation between the two states. This play represents one of Aristophanes' masterpieces. It is his last attempt to establish peace. At the end of the play, peace is achieved through mutual concessions.

The reconciliation is sealed by the Spartan bard, who invokes and praises deities that the Athenians also recognize and venerate. With its sophisticated structure, its wealth of comic elements, and its magnificent themes of peace, reconciliation, and the role of women in the family, society, and state, this comedy continues to be performed and read with great success throughout the world.

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

File:1591 jpg.jpeg

2026-01-23T09:41:27Z

Marianth: Lysistrata

== Summary ==
Lysistrata

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Lysistrata-by-Aristophanes

2026-01-23T09:23:27Z

Marianth:

[[File:1591|Lysistrata]]
== Lysistrata by Aristophanes ==
Lysistrata is an ancient pacifist comedy by Aristophanes, written and performed in 411 BC. It is considered one of the earliest and most iconic pacifist plays.

The plot recounts a sex strike led by the women of Athens and Sparta to try to convince their husbands to end the Peloponnesian War.

Lysistrata is one of the earliest and perhaps the most famous erotic comedies ever written. The women, led by Lysistrata, decide to end the war and restore peace to their country. Among them, besides Lysistrata, are the Athenian Cleonice, the young woman Murrhine, and the Spartan Lampito. The original idea comes from Lysistrata, who, for this reason, secretly invites all the Athenian women and representatives from other ancient city-states. The women gather, but when Lysistrata proposes they take a vow of sexual abstinence until the men decide to end the war, they initially oppose it. Finally, after much hesitation, they are persuaded when the Spartan woman Lampito also actively participates in her plan. The decision is sealed with an oath over a glass of wine. The women's plan also triumphs in Sparta; a Spartan herald arrives and asks the Athenians to appoint representatives to begin peace negotiations. The Spartan and Athenian envoys turn to Lysistrata to help find a compromise. Thanks to her striking beauty, Lysistrata succeeds in embodying reconciliation between the two states. This play represents one of Aristophanes' masterpieces. It is his last attempt to establish peace. At the end of the play, peace is achieved through mutual concessions.

The reconciliation is sealed by the Spartan bard, who invokes and praises deities that the Athenians also recognize and venerate. With its sophisticated structure, its wealth of comic elements, and its magnificent themes of peace, reconciliation, and the role of women in the family, society, and state, this comedy continues to be performed and read with great success throughout the world.

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Lysistrata-by-Aristophanes

2026-01-23T09:16:04Z

Marianth:

== Lysistrata by Aristophanes ==
Lysistrata is an ancient pacifist comedy by Aristophanes, written and performed in 411 BC. It is considered one of the earliest and most iconic pacifist plays.

The plot recounts a sex strike led by the women of Athens and Sparta to try to convince their husbands to end the Peloponnesian War.

Lysistrata is one of the earliest and perhaps the most famous erotic comedies ever written. The women, led by Lysistrata, decide to end the war and restore peace to their country. Among them, besides Lysistrata, are the Athenian Cleonice, the young woman Murrhine, and the Spartan Lampito. The original idea comes from Lysistrata, who, for this reason, secretly invites all the Athenian women and representatives from other ancient city-states. The women gather, but when Lysistrata proposes they take a vow of sexual abstinence until the men decide to end the war, they initially oppose it. Finally, after much hesitation, they are persuaded when the Spartan woman Lampito also actively participates in her plan. The decision is sealed with an oath over a glass of wine. The women's plan also triumphs in Sparta; a Spartan herald arrives and asks the Athenians to appoint representatives to begin peace negotiations. The Spartan and Athenian envoys turn to Lysistrata to help find a compromise. Thanks to her striking beauty, Lysistrata succeeds in embodying reconciliation between the two states. This play represents one of Aristophanes' masterpieces. It is his last attempt to establish peace. At the end of the play, peace is achieved through mutual concessions.

The reconciliation is sealed by the Spartan bard, who invokes and praises deities that the Athenians also recognize and venerate. With its sophisticated structure, its wealth of comic elements, and its magnificent themes of peace, reconciliation, and the role of women in the family, society, and state, this comedy continues to be performed and read with great success throughout the world.

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

File:1591.jpg

2026-01-23T09:11:36Z

Marianth:

Lysistrata

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Lysistrata-by-Aristophanes

2026-01-23T09:03:55Z

Marianth: Nouvelle leçon

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Grammar/Figures-of-speech

2025-10-25T12:18:19Z

Marianth:

== Figures of speech ==
A figure of speech is a creative use of language to generate an effect, enhance an expression, or evoke an emotion.

Some figures of speech, like metaphor, simile, and metonymy, are found in everyday language.

Others, like antithesis, circumlocution, and puns, require more practice to implement.

Figures of speech add richness and depth to writing, allowing authors to convey complex ideas and feelings more vividly than straightforward language would allow.

Language that uses figures of speech is known collectively as figurative language.

Writing is a craft. Here, we’ll explore some common figures of speech with definitions and examples to help you recognize and use them in your writing.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|'''Alliteration'''
Alliteration refers to repeating consonant sounds right next to each other, which creates a memorable or melodic effect.

“She sells seashells by the seashore.”
|-
|'''Antithesis'''
Antithesis is a literary technique that places opposite things or ideas next to one another to highlight their contrast.

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times…” —Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities
|-
|'''Apostrophe'''
Apostrophe as a figure of speech is when a character addresses someone or something that isn’t present or cannot respond. The character might speak to someone deceased, an inanimate object, or a concept.

“O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” —William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet
|-
|'''Circumlocution'''
Circumlocution is the use of a purposely wordy description. You can think of it as talking in circles.

In Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, the Queen of Hearts gives confusing directions to Alice using long, roundabout phrases instead of straightforward commands.
|-
|'''Epigram'''
An epigram is a clever and memorable statement. You will find epigrams in speeches, poetry, and sometimes at the beginning of a book.

“No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.” —Eleanor Roosevelt
|-
|'''Euphemism'''
A euphemism is a soft and inoffensive word or phrase that replaces a harsh, unpleasant, or hurtful one for the sake of sympathy or civility, such as passed away or downsizing.

In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, the character Napoleon refers to the execution of the animals who oppose him as a public purging, which softens the harsh reality of what’s actually happening—murder and violence.
|-
|'''Hyperbole'''
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration that adds emphasis, urgency, or excitement to a statement.

“If I don’t eat soon, I’m going to die of hunger.”
|-
|'''Irony'''
Irony is when there is a discrepancy between expectation and reality. It often highlights contrasts between appearance and truth or intention and outcome, creating a humorous, tragic, or thought-provoking effect.

In Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, Oedipus vows to find and punish the murderer of King Laius, not realizing that he himself is the murderer.
|-
|'''Litotes'''
Litotes use a double negative to create a positive.

“You’re not wrong.”
|-
|'''Metaphor'''
A metaphor directly compares dissimilar things to create more vivid imagery or understanding.

“He was an onion; to understand him, she had to peel back the layers.”
|-
|'''Metonymy'''
Metonymy is a literary device in which a word or object stands for a closely related word or object. Metonymy gives a writer more variability with descriptions.

“I thought his movies were better when they weren’t so Hollywood.”
|-
|'''Onomatopoeia'''
Onomatopoeia is when a word imitates the natural sound of a thing, making the description more expressive and vivid.

“The bacon sizzled in the pan.” The word sizzled imitates the sound of bacon cooking.
|-
|'''Oxymoron'''
An oxymoron is a phrase that uses two contradictory words to create a new meaning.

The phrase deafening silence contrasts two opposing words: deafening, which suggests a loud noise, and silence, which indicates the absence of sound.
|-
|'''Paradox'''
A paradox is a statement that appears to contradict itself but contains some truth, theme, or humor.

“All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.” —George Orwell, Animal Farm
|-
|'''Personification'''
Personification is assigning human attributes to nonhuman things.

“The floorboards groaned under the weight of each step.”
|-
|'''Pleonasm'''
Pleonasm is the use of more words than necessary to convey meaning. A writer might use pleonasm for humor or emphasis, or they might not realize they’re using extra words at all.

“The burning fire warmed the whole house.”
|-
|'''Pun'''
A pun is a form of wordplay that purposely substitutes words that sound similar but have different meanings.

“‘Mine is a long and a sad tale!’ said the Mouse, turning to Alice and sighing. ‘It is a long tail, certainly,’ said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mouse’s tail, ‘but why do you call it sad?’” —Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
|-
|'''Simile'''
A simile compares two dissimilar things using like or as to give the reader a more vivid understanding of something.

“It was the first real day of summer, and by the time she came back indoors, she was as red as a tomato.”
|-
|'''Synecdoche'''
Synecdoche is when a smaller unit is used to signify a larger unit or vice versa. In the expression all hands on deck, hands refers to the crew members who work on a ship. Instead of mentioning the entire person, it uses a part (the hands) to represent the whole.
|-
|'''Understatement'''
Understatement is the intentional downplaying of a situation. This can create a humorous or deadpan effect in writing.

“I have to have this operation. It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain.” —J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye.
|}
'''Source : G grammarly'''

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Grammar/Figures-of-speech

2025-10-25T12:13:58Z

Marianth:

[[File:Σχήματα λόγου|thumb]]
== Figures of speech ==
A figure of speech is a creative use of language to generate an effect, enhance an expression, or evoke an emotion.

Some figures of speech, like metaphor, simile, and metonymy, are found in everyday language.

Others, like antithesis, circumlocution, and puns, require more practice to implement.

Figures of speech add richness and depth to writing, allowing authors to convey complex ideas and feelings more vividly than straightforward language would allow.

Language that uses figures of speech is known collectively as figurative language.

Writing is a craft. Here, we’ll explore some common figures of speech with definitions and examples to help you recognize and use them in your writing.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|'''Alliteration'''
Alliteration refers to repeating consonant sounds right next to each other, which creates a memorable or melodic effect.

“She sells seashells by the seashore.”
|-
|'''Antithesis'''
Antithesis is a literary technique that places opposite things or ideas next to one another to highlight their contrast.

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times…” —Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities
|-
|'''Apostrophe'''
Apostrophe as a figure of speech is when a character addresses someone or something that isn’t present or cannot respond. The character might speak to someone deceased, an inanimate object, or a concept.

“O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” —William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet
|-
|'''Circumlocution'''
Circumlocution is the use of a purposely wordy description. You can think of it as talking in circles.

In Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, the Queen of Hearts gives confusing directions to Alice using long, roundabout phrases instead of straightforward commands.
|-
|'''Epigram'''
An epigram is a clever and memorable statement. You will find epigrams in speeches, poetry, and sometimes at the beginning of a book.

“No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.” —Eleanor Roosevelt
|-
|'''Euphemism'''
A euphemism is a soft and inoffensive word or phrase that replaces a harsh, unpleasant, or hurtful one for the sake of sympathy or civility, such as passed away or downsizing.

In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, the character Napoleon refers to the execution of the animals who oppose him as a public purging, which softens the harsh reality of what’s actually happening—murder and violence.
|-
|'''Hyperbole'''
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration that adds emphasis, urgency, or excitement to a statement.

“If I don’t eat soon, I’m going to die of hunger.”
|-
|'''Irony'''
Irony is when there is a discrepancy between expectation and reality. It often highlights contrasts between appearance and truth or intention and outcome, creating a humorous, tragic, or thought-provoking effect.

In Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, Oedipus vows to find and punish the murderer of King Laius, not realizing that he himself is the murderer.
|-
|'''Litotes'''
Litotes use a double negative to create a positive.

“You’re not wrong.”
|-
|'''Metaphor'''
A metaphor directly compares dissimilar things to create more vivid imagery or understanding.

“He was an onion; to understand him, she had to peel back the layers.”
|-
|'''Metonymy'''
Metonymy is a literary device in which a word or object stands for a closely related word or object. Metonymy gives a writer more variability with descriptions.

“I thought his movies were better when they weren’t so Hollywood.”
|-
|'''Onomatopoeia'''
Onomatopoeia is when a word imitates the natural sound of a thing, making the description more expressive and vivid.

“The bacon sizzled in the pan.” The word sizzled imitates the sound of bacon cooking.
|-
|'''Oxymoron'''
An oxymoron is a phrase that uses two contradictory words to create a new meaning.

The phrase deafening silence contrasts two opposing words: deafening, which suggests a loud noise, and silence, which indicates the absence of sound.
|-
|'''Paradox'''
A paradox is a statement that appears to contradict itself but contains some truth, theme, or humor.

“All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.” —George Orwell, Animal Farm
|-
|'''Personification'''
Personification is assigning human attributes to nonhuman things.

“The floorboards groaned under the weight of each step.”
|-
|'''Pleonasm'''
Pleonasm is the use of more words than necessary to convey meaning. A writer might use pleonasm for humor or emphasis, or they might not realize they’re using extra words at all.

“The burning fire warmed the whole house.”
|-
|'''Pun'''
A pun is a form of wordplay that purposely substitutes words that sound similar but have different meanings.

“‘Mine is a long and a sad tale!’ said the Mouse, turning to Alice and sighing. ‘It is a long tail, certainly,’ said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mouse’s tail, ‘but why do you call it sad?’” —Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
|-
|'''Simile'''
A simile compares two dissimilar things using like or as to give the reader a more vivid understanding of something.

“It was the first real day of summer, and by the time she came back indoors, she was as red as a tomato.”
|-
|'''Synecdoche'''
Synecdoche is when a smaller unit is used to signify a larger unit or vice versa. In the expression all hands on deck, hands refers to the crew members who work on a ship. Instead of mentioning the entire person, it uses a part (the hands) to represent the whole.
|-
|'''Understatement'''
Understatement is the intentional downplaying of a situation. This can create a humorous or deadpan effect in writing.

“I have to have this operation. It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain.” —J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye.
|}
'''Source : G grammarly'''

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Grammar/Figures-of-speech

2025-10-25T10:45:10Z

Marianth:

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Grammar/Figures-of-speech

2025-10-25T10:43:10Z

Marianth:

== Figures of speech ==
A figure of speech is a creative use of language to generate an effect, enhance an expression, or evoke an emotion.

Some figures of speech, like metaphor, simile, and metonymy, are found in everyday language.

Others, like antithesis, circumlocution, and puns, require more practice to implement.

Figures of speech add richness and depth to writing, allowing authors to convey complex ideas and feelings more vividly than straightforward language would allow.

Language that uses figures of speech is known collectively as figurative language.

Writing is a craft. Here, we’ll explore some common figures of speech with definitions and examples to help you recognize and use them in your writing.

{| class="wikitable"
|+
|'''Alliteration'''
Alliteration refers to repeating consonant sounds right next to each other, which creates a memorable or melodic effect.

“She sells seashells by the seashore.”
|-
|'''Antithesis'''
Antithesis is a literary technique that places opposite things or ideas next to one another to highlight their contrast.

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times…” —Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities
|-
|'''Apostrophe'''
Apostrophe as a figure of speech is when a character addresses someone or something that isn’t present or cannot respond. The character might speak to someone deceased, an inanimate object, or a concept.

“O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” —William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet
|-
|'''Circumlocution'''
Circumlocution is the use of a purposely wordy description. You can think of it as talking in circles.

In Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, the Queen of Hearts gives confusing directions to Alice using long, roundabout phrases instead of straightforward commands.
|-
|'''Epigram'''
An epigram is a clever and memorable statement. You will find epigrams in speeches, poetry, and sometimes at the beginning of a book.

“No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.” —Eleanor Roosevelt

|'''Euphemism'''
A euphemism is a soft and inoffensive word or phrase that replaces a harsh, unpleasant, or hurtful one for the sake of sympathy or civility, such as passed away or downsizing.

In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, the character Napoleon refers to the execution of the animals who oppose him as a public purging, which softens the harsh reality of what’s actually happening—murder and violence.
|-
|'''Hyperbole'''
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration that adds emphasis, urgency, or excitement to a statement.

“If I don’t eat soon, I’m going to die of hunger.”
|-
|'''Irony'''
Irony is when there is a discrepancy between expectation and reality. It often highlights contrasts between appearance and truth or intention and outcome, creating a humorous, tragic, or thought-provoking effect.

In Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, Oedipus vows to find and punish the murderer of King Laius, not realizing that he himself is the murderer.
|-
|'''Litotes'''
Litotes use a double negative to create a positive.

“You’re not wrong.”
|-
|'''Metaphor'''
A metaphor directly compares dissimilar things to create more vivid imagery or understanding.

“He was an onion; to understand him, she had to peel back the layers.”
|-
|'''Metonymy'''
Metonymy is a literary device in which a word or object stands for a closely related word or object. Metonymy gives a writer more variability with descriptions.

“I thought his movies were better when they weren’t so Hollywood.”
|-
|'''Onomatopoeia'''
Onomatopoeia is when a word imitates the natural sound of a thing, making the description more expressive and vivid.

“The bacon sizzled in the pan.” The word sizzled imitates the sound of bacon cooking.
|-
|'''Oxymoron'''
An oxymoron is a phrase that uses two contradictory words to create a new meaning.

The phrase deafening silence contrasts two opposing words: deafening, which suggests a loud noise, and silence, which indicates the absence of sound.
|-
|'''Paradox'''
A paradox is a statement that appears to contradict itself but contains some truth, theme, or humor.

“All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.” —George Orwell, Animal Farm
|-
|'''Personification'''
Personification is assigning human attributes to nonhuman things.

“The floorboards groaned under the weight of each step.”
|-
|'''Pleonasm'''
Pleonasm is the use of more words than necessary to convey meaning. A writer might use pleonasm for humor or emphasis, or they might not realize they’re using extra words at all.

“The burning fire warmed the whole house.”
|-
|'''Pun'''
A pun is a form of wordplay that purposely substitutes words that sound similar but have different meanings.

“‘Mine is a long and a sad tale!’ said the Mouse, turning to Alice and sighing. ‘It is a long tail, certainly,’ said Alice, looking down with wonder at the Mouse’s tail, ‘but why do you call it sad?’” —Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
|-
|'''Simile'''
A simile compares two dissimilar things using like or as to give the reader a more vivid understanding of something.

“It was the first real day of summer, and by the time she came back indoors, she was as red as a tomato.”
|-
|'''Synecdoche'''
Synecdoche is when a smaller unit is used to signify a larger unit or vice versa. In the expression all hands on deck, hands refers to the crew members who work on a ship. Instead of mentioning the entire person, it uses a part (the hands) to represent the whole.
|-
|'''Understatement'''
Understatement is the intentional downplaying of a situation. This can create a humorous or deadpan effect in writing.

“I have to have this operation. It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain.” —J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye.
|}
'''Source : G grammarly'''

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Grammar/Figures-of-speech

2025-10-25T10:39:05Z

Marianth: Nouvelle leçon

Language/Multiple-languages/Culture/Traditional-Clothings:-Southern-Europe

2025-09-16T17:30:20Z

Marianth: correction

{{Traditional-Costumes}}

== Categories ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!costume
!wearing position
!wearer identity
!wearing occasion
!place of origin
!time of origin
!image
|-
|
* fustanella [sqi]
|upper torso
|men
|
|Albania
|4<sup>th</sup> century
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Fustanela_001.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Traditional_Albanian_clothing
|-
|
* alpargatas [spa]
* espardenyes [cat]
* espartinak [eus]
|feet
|
|
|Catalonia, Aragon, Basque Country, Occitania
|1322
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Alpargatas_%28Espadrilles%29_01.jpg/960px-Alpargatas_%28Espadrilles%29_01.jpg
|-
|
* boina [spa]
* txapel [eus]
|head
|
|
|Pyrenees
|17<sup>th</sup> century
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/St%C3%AAnio_Garcia.jpg/500px-St%C3%AAnio_Garcia.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Berets
|-
|
* sombrero cordobés [spa]
|head
|
|
|Córdoba
|17<sup>th</sup> century
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Lovely_Senora_pondering_in_the_shade_%283317358067%29.jpg/500px-Lovely_Senora_pondering_in_the_shade_%283317358067%29.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sombrero_cordob%C3%A9s
|-
|
* coppola [ita]
|head
|
|
|England
|18<sup>th</sup> century
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Uomo_siciliano.jpg/500px-Uomo_siciliano.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Coppola_(cap)
|-
|
* montera [spa]
|head
|
|
|Spain
|1835
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Enrique_ponce.jpg/500px-Enrique_ponce.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Montera
|-
|
* ''crnogorska kapa'' црногорска капа [srp]
|head
|
|
|Montenegro
|middle 1840s
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Petar_II_Petrovic-Njegos.jpg/500px-Petar_II_Petrovic-Njegos.jpg
|-
|
* traje de flamenca [spa]
|upper torso
|women
|festivals
|Andalusia
|19<sup>th</sup> century
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/16679293673_5f6312d3ca_o_feria_de_abril.jpg/960px-16679293673_5f6312d3ca_o_feria_de_abril.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Traje_de_flamenca
|-
|
* traje de luces [spa]
|upper torso and lower torso
|bullfighters
|
|Spain
|18<sup>th</sup> century
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Fran_Rivera_en_las_fiestas_Colombinas_2008_en_Huelva_%28Espa%C3%B1a%29.JPG/960px-Fran_Rivera_en_las_fiestas_Colombinas_2008_en_Huelva_%28Espa%C3%B1a%29.JPG
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Traje_de_luces
|-
|
* abarka [eus]
* albarca [spa]
* avarca [cat]
|feet
|
|
|Pyrenees
|
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Albarcas.JPG/960px-Albarcas.JPG
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Albarcas
|-
|
* barretina [cat]
|head
|
|
|Catalonia, Ibiza
|
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Barretina2.jpg/960px-Barretina2.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Barretinav
|-
|
* għonnella [mlt]
|head
|women
|
|
|
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Woman_wearing_g%C4%A7onnella.jpg/500px-Woman_wearing_g%C4%A7onnella.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:G%C4%A7onnella
|-
|
* lička kapa [hrv]
|head
|
|
|Lika
|
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0.jpg/500px-%D0%9B%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Lika_cap
|-
|
* qelesheja [sqi]
|head
|
|
|Albania
|
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Old_man_of_Has_of_Prizren.jpg/500px-Old_man_of_Has_of_Prizren.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Qeleshe
|-
|
* šubara шубара [srp]
|head
|men
|
|Serbia
|
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/D%C3%BCsseldorf%2C_1._Mai_2014%2C_Serbische_Lammfellm%C3%BCtzen_%27Subara%27_%285%29.jpg/960px-D%C3%BCsseldorf%2C_1._Mai_2014%2C_Serbische_Lammfellm%C3%BCtzen_%27Subara%27_%285%29.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:%C5%A0ubara
|-
|
* ''tsarouchi'' τσαρούχι [ell]
|feet
|men
|
|Greece
|
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/4Mu%C5%BEsk%C3%BD_op%C3%A1nek_zvan%C3%BD_%E2%80%9Etsarouchia%E2%80%9C%2C_%C5%98ecko%2C_1._t%C5%99etina_20._stolet%C3%AD._Sou%C4%8D%C3%A1st_sb%C3%ADrky_obuvi_Muzea_jihov%C3%BDchodn%C3%AD_Moravy_ve_Zl%C3%ADn%C4%9B.jpg/960px-4Mu%C5%BEsk%C3%BD_op%C3%A1nek_zvan%C3%BD_%E2%80%9Etsarouchia%E2%80%9C%2C_%C5%98ecko%2C_1._t%C5%99etina_20._stolet%C3%AD._Sou%C4%8D%C3%A1st_sb%C3%ADrky_obuvi_Muzea_jihov%C3%BDchodn%C3%AD_Moravy_ve_Zl%C3%ADn%C4%9B.jpg
|-
|
* xhamadan [sqi]
|upper torso
|men
|
|Northeastern Albania
|
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Xhamadani.jpg/640px-Xhamadani.jpg
|-
|
* ''opinok'' опинок [mkd]
* opanci опанци [hbs]
|feet
|
|
|Southeastern Europe
|
|https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Traditional_shoes.jpg/960px-Traditional_shoes.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Opanci
|}

== Objects ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!costume
!time
!image
|-
|
|
|
|}

{{Traditional-Costumes}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/The-tomb-of-Philip-II

2025-08-15T07:11:08Z

Marianth:

[[File:70458.jpg|thumb|none|Entrance to the tomb of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great.]]
== Archaeological Site of Aigai ==

== intoduction ==
Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina)

The city of Aigai, the ancient first capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, was discovered in the 19th century near Vergina, in northern Greece. The most important remains are the monumental palace, lavishly decorated with mosaics and painted stuccoes, and the burial ground with more than 300 tumuli, some of which date from the 11th century B.C. One of the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus is identified as that of Philip II, who conquered all the Greek cities, paving the way for his son Alexander and the expansion of the Hellenistic world.
[[File:70459.jpg|thumb|none|Entrance to the Museum of the Royal Tombs of Aigai (present-day Vergina).]]
== Brief synthesis ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient royal capital of Macedon, was discovered in the 19th century. It is located between the modern villages of Palatitsia and Vergina, in Northern Greece (Region of Hemathia). At Aigai was rooted the royal dynasty of the Temenids, the family of Philip II and Alexander the Great. The Archaeological Site of Aigai, containing an urban center – the oldest and most important in Northern Greece – and several surrounded settlements, is defined by the rivers Haliakmon (W and N), Askordos (E), and the Pierian Mountains (S). Aigai provides important information about the culture, history and society of the ancient Macedonians, the Greek border tribe that preserved age-old traditions and carried Greek culture to the outer limits of the ancient world. The most important, already excavated, archaeological remains of the site are: the monumental palace (ca 340 BC), which was the biggest and one of the most impressive buildings of classical Greece, the theatre, the sanctuaries of Eukleia and the Mother of the Gods, the city walls, the royal necropolis, containing more than 500 tumuli, dating from the 11th to 2nd century BC. Three royal burial clusters have been already excavated. Twelve monumental temple-shaped tombs are known. Among them is the tomb of Euridice, mother of Philip II and the unlooted tombs of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, and his grandson, Alexander IV, which have been discovered in 1977-8 and made a worldwide sensation. The quality of the tombs themselves and their grave-goods places Aigai among the most important archaeological sites in Europe.

Criterion (i): Both the cemetery and the city contain original and unique historical, artistic and aesthetic achievements of the late classical art of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance, such as the architectural form of the royal palace and the magnificent wall paintings of the so-called Macedonian tombs, as well as objects such as the ivory portrait and miniature art, metal, gold and silver work. Many of these achievements were created by great artists of ancient Greece, such as Leochares and Nikomachos.

Criterion (iii): Τhe site represents an exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from the classical city state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents.
[[File:70462.jpg|thumb|none|The ceremonial shield of Philip II]]
== Integrity ==
The World Heritage property contains within its boundaries all the key attributes that convey its Outstanding Universal Value. A zone of absolute protection, prohibiting any building activity, and containing the ancient city, its cemeteries and a Bronze-Age mount, ensures its integrity. A wider protection zone, with building restrictions, ensures more the integrity of site. Aigai provides some of the most complete, whole and intact ancient monuments, such as the palace and the sanctuaries, the so-called Macedonian tombs and complete specimens of rare pieces of ancient art. The archaeological research in the city and cemeteries in combination with the restoration projects running in the Palace and the Royal Necropolis, according to the site’s master plan and the national and international standards and regulations, have multiple and positive impact for the documentation and protection of the site. The natural setting, (semi-mountainous landscape, rivers, flora), which corresponds to the ancient urban territory and the cultural remains of the Macedonian royal center, emphasizes the integrity of the property.
[[File:70461.jpg|thumb|none|The Gold Gorytos (a combined quiver and bow case) and bronze greaves (leg armor) of Philip II of Macedon ]]
== Authenticity ==
The Archaeological Site of Aigai, with its artistic and architectural remains testifies its authenticity, in terms of form, materials and setting. It is generally accepted that excavation, especially of earthen structures and deposits, is necessarily an act of destruction. The original Great Tumulus is therefore no longer in existence, and has been simulated in the cover structure. The protective shelter has been constructed in order to protect and ensure the authenticity of the royal tombs. Its tumulus-shaped form and the technical specifications are in complete harmony and respect to the monuments. However, the interiors of the tombs are entirely authentic, with only minimal modern interventions in order to preserve their continued stability. Elsewhere on the site (e.g. the palace) the remains are entirely authentic.

The subterranean temple-shaped tombs are amongst the best-preserved examples on the use of colour in ancient architecture, and their discovery revealed for the first time the intact façade of an ancient Greek building. The complete and emblematic form of the royal palace, based on philosophical, political and architectural notions (archetype of peristyle palatial buildings), served in antiquity and modern times as the prototype and a visual statement of the notion of the enlightened kingship. Some of the royal tombs have been sheltered. The protection of the monuments and their natural environment as a unit ensures the authentic context of the city and its cemeteries.

== Protection and management requirements ==
The property is a serial site with two components surrounded by an extensive buffer zone. It is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs, through the Ephorate of Antiquities of Hemathia, its competent Regional Service. The Archaeological Site of Aigai is protected under the provisions of Law No. 3028/2002 on the “Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in general”. Τhe protected Archaeological Site of Aigai (Ministerial Decree 35117/2019/2.8.95) is located inside a designated area of outstanding natural beauty (Decree of the Minister of Macedonia and Thrace No. 8383/92/28.1.1993). A zone of absolute protection has been established, covering the ancient city, the necropolis, and all the surrounding area within which antiquities have been discovered, as well as a buffer zone. Development pressures to the property are addressed by the implementation of the aforementioned legal framework and the constant control of the competent Ephorate.

A complete master plan, concerning the protection, restoration, visiting and information, in order to maintain the Outstanding Universal Value of the site in the long term, is approved by the Central Archaeological Council/Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs.

The project of the restoration, implantation and embellishment of the Royal Cemetery, funded by the EU, is completed and the area is open to the public, while the same project for the Royal Palace is in progress and the monument is partly accessible to the visitors. The new building of the Multi-Centre Museum of Aigai, also funded by the EU, is already constructed, and it will be open to the public as soon as the exhibition is completed. The Archaeological Site of Aigai has an ongoing systematic excavation. Furthermore, many conservation studies, archaeometric research and architectural restoration studies have been completed for the better understanding of the monuments, as well as the dissemination of historical and archaeological data. The funding of the projects comes from national and European resources.

The cluster of the royal tombs is protected by a tumulus-shaped shelter, the present Museum of the Royal Tombs at Aigai. All the items found in the cluster, the architectural buildings, wall paintings of the tombs are displayed in a secure and controlled environment. It constitutes a particularly original example of burial monuments sheltered in a modern underground museum.

The worldwide impact of the antiquities discovered in Aigai resulted in a massive turnout of visitors, for whom special facilities have been provided. The digital museum, entitled ‘’Alexander the Great: From Aigai to Oikoumene’’, is under construction. It will be based at Aigai, the ancient capital of Macedon and it will be interactively connected with others sites, museums and institutions worldwide and create an archaeological network showing the universal value of the site.

Source : UNESCO

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/The-tomb-of-Philip-II

2025-08-15T07:01:47Z

Marianth:

[[File:70458.jpg|thumb|none]]
== Archaeological Site of Aigai ==

== intoduction ==
Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina)

The city of Aigai, the ancient first capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, was discovered in the 19th century near Vergina, in northern Greece. The most important remains are the monumental palace, lavishly decorated with mosaics and painted stuccoes, and the burial ground with more than 300 tumuli, some of which date from the 11th century B.C. One of the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus is identified as that of Philip II, who conquered all the Greek cities, paving the way for his son Alexander and the expansion of the Hellenistic world.
[[File:70459.jpg|thumb|none]]
== Brief synthesis ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient royal capital of Macedon, was discovered in the 19th century. It is located between the modern villages of Palatitsia and Vergina, in Northern Greece (Region of Hemathia). At Aigai was rooted the royal dynasty of the Temenids, the family of Philip II and Alexander the Great. The Archaeological Site of Aigai, containing an urban center – the oldest and most important in Northern Greece – and several surrounded settlements, is defined by the rivers Haliakmon (W and N), Askordos (E), and the Pierian Mountains (S). Aigai provides important information about the culture, history and society of the ancient Macedonians, the Greek border tribe that preserved age-old traditions and carried Greek culture to the outer limits of the ancient world. The most important, already excavated, archaeological remains of the site are: the monumental palace (ca 340 BC), which was the biggest and one of the most impressive buildings of classical Greece, the theatre, the sanctuaries of Eukleia and the Mother of the Gods, the city walls, the royal necropolis, containing more than 500 tumuli, dating from the 11th to 2nd century BC. Three royal burial clusters have been already excavated. Twelve monumental temple-shaped tombs are known. Among them is the tomb of Euridice, mother of Philip II and the unlooted tombs of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, and his grandson, Alexander IV, which have been discovered in 1977-8 and made a worldwide sensation. The quality of the tombs themselves and their grave-goods places Aigai among the most important archaeological sites in Europe.

Criterion (i): Both the cemetery and the city contain original and unique historical, artistic and aesthetic achievements of the late classical art of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance, such as the architectural form of the royal palace and the magnificent wall paintings of the so-called Macedonian tombs, as well as objects such as the ivory portrait and miniature art, metal, gold and silver work. Many of these achievements were created by great artists of ancient Greece, such as Leochares and Nikomachos.

Criterion (iii): Τhe site represents an exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from the classical city state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents.
[[File:70462.jpg|thumb|none]]
== Integrity ==
The World Heritage property contains within its boundaries all the key attributes that convey its Outstanding Universal Value. A zone of absolute protection, prohibiting any building activity, and containing the ancient city, its cemeteries and a Bronze-Age mount, ensures its integrity. A wider protection zone, with building restrictions, ensures more the integrity of site. Aigai provides some of the most complete, whole and intact ancient monuments, such as the palace and the sanctuaries, the so-called Macedonian tombs and complete specimens of rare pieces of ancient art. The archaeological research in the city and cemeteries in combination with the restoration projects running in the Palace and the Royal Necropolis, according to the site’s master plan and the national and international standards and regulations, have multiple and positive impact for the documentation and protection of the site. The natural setting, (semi-mountainous landscape, rivers, flora), which corresponds to the ancient urban territory and the cultural remains of the Macedonian royal center, emphasizes the integrity of the property.
[[File:70461.jpg|thumb|none]]
== Authenticity ==
The Archaeological Site of Aigai, with its artistic and architectural remains testifies its authenticity, in terms of form, materials and setting. It is generally accepted that excavation, especially of earthen structures and deposits, is necessarily an act of destruction. The original Great Tumulus is therefore no longer in existence, and has been simulated in the cover structure. The protective shelter has been constructed in order to protect and ensure the authenticity of the royal tombs. Its tumulus-shaped form and the technical specifications are in complete harmony and respect to the monuments. However, the interiors of the tombs are entirely authentic, with only minimal modern interventions in order to preserve their continued stability. Elsewhere on the site (e.g. the palace) the remains are entirely authentic.

The subterranean temple-shaped tombs are amongst the best-preserved examples on the use of colour in ancient architecture, and their discovery revealed for the first time the intact façade of an ancient Greek building. The complete and emblematic form of the royal palace, based on philosophical, political and architectural notions (archetype of peristyle palatial buildings), served in antiquity and modern times as the prototype and a visual statement of the notion of the enlightened kingship. Some of the royal tombs have been sheltered. The protection of the monuments and their natural environment as a unit ensures the authentic context of the city and its cemeteries.

== Protection and management requirements ==
The property is a serial site with two components surrounded by an extensive buffer zone. It is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs, through the Ephorate of Antiquities of Hemathia, its competent Regional Service. The Archaeological Site of Aigai is protected under the provisions of Law No. 3028/2002 on the “Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in general”. Τhe protected Archaeological Site of Aigai (Ministerial Decree 35117/2019/2.8.95) is located inside a designated area of outstanding natural beauty (Decree of the Minister of Macedonia and Thrace No. 8383/92/28.1.1993). A zone of absolute protection has been established, covering the ancient city, the necropolis, and all the surrounding area within which antiquities have been discovered, as well as a buffer zone. Development pressures to the property are addressed by the implementation of the aforementioned legal framework and the constant control of the competent Ephorate.

A complete master plan, concerning the protection, restoration, visiting and information, in order to maintain the Outstanding Universal Value of the site in the long term, is approved by the Central Archaeological Council/Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs.

The project of the restoration, implantation and embellishment of the Royal Cemetery, funded by the EU, is completed and the area is open to the public, while the same project for the Royal Palace is in progress and the monument is partly accessible to the visitors. The new building of the Multi-Centre Museum of Aigai, also funded by the EU, is already constructed, and it will be open to the public as soon as the exhibition is completed. The Archaeological Site of Aigai has an ongoing systematic excavation. Furthermore, many conservation studies, archaeometric research and architectural restoration studies have been completed for the better understanding of the monuments, as well as the dissemination of historical and archaeological data. The funding of the projects comes from national and European resources.

The cluster of the royal tombs is protected by a tumulus-shaped shelter, the present Museum of the Royal Tombs at Aigai. All the items found in the cluster, the architectural buildings, wall paintings of the tombs are displayed in a secure and controlled environment. It constitutes a particularly original example of burial monuments sheltered in a modern underground museum.

The worldwide impact of the antiquities discovered in Aigai resulted in a massive turnout of visitors, for whom special facilities have been provided. The digital museum, entitled ‘’Alexander the Great: From Aigai to Oikoumene’’, is under construction. It will be based at Aigai, the ancient capital of Macedon and it will be interactively connected with others sites, museums and institutions worldwide and create an archaeological network showing the universal value of the site.

Source : UNESCO

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/The-tomb-of-Philip-II

2025-08-15T07:00:11Z

Marianth:

[[File:70458.jpg|thumb|none]]
== Archaeological Site of Aigai ==

== intoduction ==
Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina)

The city of Aigai, the ancient first capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, was discovered in the 19th century near Vergina, in northern Greece. The most important remains are the monumental palace, lavishly decorated with mosaics and painted stuccoes, and the burial ground with more than 300 tumuli, some of which date from the 11th century B.C. One of the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus is identified as that of Philip II, who conquered all the Greek cities, paving the way for his son Alexander and the expansion of the Hellenistic world.
[[File:70459.jpg|thumb|none]]
== Brief synthesis ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient royal capital of Macedon, was discovered in the 19th century. It is located between the modern villages of Palatitsia and Vergina, in Northern Greece (Region of Hemathia). At Aigai was rooted the royal dynasty of the Temenids, the family of Philip II and Alexander the Great. The Archaeological Site of Aigai, containing an urban center – the oldest and most important in Northern Greece – and several surrounded settlements, is defined by the rivers Haliakmon (W and N), Askordos (E), and the Pierian Mountains (S). Aigai provides important information about the culture, history and society of the ancient Macedonians, the Greek border tribe that preserved age-old traditions and carried Greek culture to the outer limits of the ancient world. The most important, already excavated, archaeological remains of the site are: the monumental palace (ca 340 BC), which was the biggest and one of the most impressive buildings of classical Greece, the theatre, the sanctuaries of Eukleia and the Mother of the Gods, the city walls, the royal necropolis, containing more than 500 tumuli, dating from the 11th to 2nd century BC. Three royal burial clusters have been already excavated. Twelve monumental temple-shaped tombs are known. Among them is the tomb of Euridice, mother of Philip II and the unlooted tombs of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, and his grandson, Alexander IV, which have been discovered in 1977-8 and made a worldwide sensation. The quality of the tombs themselves and their grave-goods places Aigai among the most important archaeological sites in Europe.

Criterion (i): Both the cemetery and the city contain original and unique historical, artistic and aesthetic achievements of the late classical art of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance, such as the architectural form of the royal palace and the magnificent wall paintings of the so-called Macedonian tombs, as well as objects such as the ivory portrait and miniature art, metal, gold and silver work. Many of these achievements were created by great artists of ancient Greece, such as Leochares and Nikomachos.

Criterion (iii): Τhe site represents an exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from the classical city state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents.
[[File:70462.jpg|thumb|none]]
== Integrity ==
The World Heritage property contains within its boundaries all the key attributes that convey its Outstanding Universal Value. A zone of absolute protection, prohibiting any building activity, and containing the ancient city, its cemeteries and a Bronze-Age mount, ensures its integrity. A wider protection zone, with building restrictions, ensures more the integrity of site. Aigai provides some of the most complete, whole and intact ancient monuments, such as the palace and the sanctuaries, the so-called Macedonian tombs and complete specimens of rare pieces of ancient art. The archaeological research in the city and cemeteries in combination with the restoration projects running in the Palace and the Royal Necropolis, according to the site’s master plan and the national and international standards and regulations, have multiple and positive impact for the documentation and protection of the site. The natural setting, (semi-mountainous landscape, rivers, flora), which corresponds to the ancient urban territory and the cultural remains of the Macedonian royal center, emphasizes the integrity of the property.
[[File:70461.jpg|thumb|none]]
== Authenticity ==
The Archaeological Site of Aigai, with its artistic and architectural remains testifies its authenticity, in terms of form, materials and setting. It is generally accepted that excavation, especially of earthen structures and deposits, is necessarily an act of destruction. The original Great Tumulus is therefore no longer in existence, and has been simulated in the cover structure. The protective shelter has been constructed in order to protect and ensure the authenticity of the royal tombs. Its tumulus-shaped form and the technical specifications are in complete harmony and respect to the monuments. However, the interiors of the tombs are entirely authentic, with only minimal modern interventions in order to preserve their continued stability. Elsewhere on the site (e.g. the palace) the remains are entirely authentic.

The subterranean temple-shaped tombs are amongst the best-preserved examples on the use of colour in ancient architecture, and their discovery revealed for the first time the intact façade of an ancient Greek building. The complete and emblematic form of the royal palace, based on philosophical, political and architectural notions (archetype of peristyle palatial buildings), served in antiquity and modern times as the prototype and a visual statement of the notion of the enlightened kingship. Some of the royal tombs have been sheltered. The protection of the monuments and their natural environment as a unit ensures the authentic context of the city and its cemeteries.
<gallery>
File:70458.jpg
File:70459.jpg
File:70462.jpg
File:70461.jpg
</gallery>

== Protection and management requirements ==
The property is a serial site with two components surrounded by an extensive buffer zone. It is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs, through the Ephorate of Antiquities of Hemathia, its competent Regional Service. The Archaeological Site of Aigai is protected under the provisions of Law No. 3028/2002 on the “Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in general”. Τhe protected Archaeological Site of Aigai (Ministerial Decree 35117/2019/2.8.95) is located inside a designated area of outstanding natural beauty (Decree of the Minister of Macedonia and Thrace No. 8383/92/28.1.1993). A zone of absolute protection has been established, covering the ancient city, the necropolis, and all the surrounding area within which antiquities have been discovered, as well as a buffer zone. Development pressures to the property are addressed by the implementation of the aforementioned legal framework and the constant control of the competent Ephorate.

A complete master plan, concerning the protection, restoration, visiting and information, in order to maintain the Outstanding Universal Value of the site in the long term, is approved by the Central Archaeological Council/Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs.

The project of the restoration, implantation and embellishment of the Royal Cemetery, funded by the EU, is completed and the area is open to the public, while the same project for the Royal Palace is in progress and the monument is partly accessible to the visitors. The new building of the Multi-Centre Museum of Aigai, also funded by the EU, is already constructed, and it will be open to the public as soon as the exhibition is completed. The Archaeological Site of Aigai has an ongoing systematic excavation. Furthermore, many conservation studies, archaeometric research and architectural restoration studies have been completed for the better understanding of the monuments, as well as the dissemination of historical and archaeological data. The funding of the projects comes from national and European resources.

The cluster of the royal tombs is protected by a tumulus-shaped shelter, the present Museum of the Royal Tombs at Aigai. All the items found in the cluster, the architectural buildings, wall paintings of the tombs are displayed in a secure and controlled environment. It constitutes a particularly original example of burial monuments sheltered in a modern underground museum.

The worldwide impact of the antiquities discovered in Aigai resulted in a massive turnout of visitors, for whom special facilities have been provided. The digital museum, entitled ‘’Alexander the Great: From Aigai to Oikoumene’’, is under construction. It will be based at Aigai, the ancient capital of Macedon and it will be interactively connected with others sites, museums and institutions worldwide and create an archaeological network showing the universal value of the site.

Source : UNESCO

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File:70461.jpg

2025-08-15T06:49:46Z

Marianth: Το αρχείο μεταφορτώθηκε με το MsUpload

Το αρχείο μεταφορτώθηκε με το MsUpload

File:70462.jpg

2025-08-15T06:49:08Z

Marianth: Το αρχείο μεταφορτώθηκε με το MsUpload

Το αρχείο μεταφορτώθηκε με το MsUpload

File:70459.jpg

2025-08-15T06:48:20Z

Marianth: Το αρχείο μεταφορτώθηκε με το MsUpload

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File:70458.jpg

2025-08-15T06:47:49Z

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Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/The-tomb-of-Philip-II

2025-08-15T06:46:54Z

Marianth: Nouvelle leçon

== Archaeological Site of Aigai ==

== intoduction ==
Archaeological Site of Aigai (modern name Vergina)

The city of Aigai, the ancient first capital of the Kingdom of Macedonia, was discovered in the 19th century near Vergina, in northern Greece. The most important remains are the monumental palace, lavishly decorated with mosaics and painted stuccoes, and the burial ground with more than 300 tumuli, some of which date from the 11th century B.C. One of the royal tombs in the Great Tumulus is identified as that of Philip II, who conquered all the Greek cities, paving the way for his son Alexander and the expansion of the Hellenistic world.

== Brief synthesis ==
The city of Aigai, the ancient royal capital of Macedon, was discovered in the 19th century. It is located between the modern villages of Palatitsia and Vergina, in Northern Greece (Region of Hemathia). At Aigai was rooted the royal dynasty of the Temenids, the family of Philip II and Alexander the Great. The Archaeological Site of Aigai, containing an urban center – the oldest and most important in Northern Greece – and several surrounded settlements, is defined by the rivers Haliakmon (W and N), Askordos (E), and the Pierian Mountains (S). Aigai provides important information about the culture, history and society of the ancient Macedonians, the Greek border tribe that preserved age-old traditions and carried Greek culture to the outer limits of the ancient world. The most important, already excavated, archaeological remains of the site are: the monumental palace (ca 340 BC), which was the biggest and one of the most impressive buildings of classical Greece, the theatre, the sanctuaries of Eukleia and the Mother of the Gods, the city walls, the royal necropolis, containing more than 500 tumuli, dating from the 11th to 2nd century BC. Three royal burial clusters have been already excavated. Twelve monumental temple-shaped tombs are known. Among them is the tomb of Euridice, mother of Philip II and the unlooted tombs of Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, and his grandson, Alexander IV, which have been discovered in 1977-8 and made a worldwide sensation. The quality of the tombs themselves and their grave-goods places Aigai among the most important archaeological sites in Europe.

Criterion (i): Both the cemetery and the city contain original and unique historical, artistic and aesthetic achievements of the late classical art of extraordinarily high quality and historical importance, such as the architectural form of the royal palace and the magnificent wall paintings of the so-called Macedonian tombs, as well as objects such as the ivory portrait and miniature art, metal, gold and silver work. Many of these achievements were created by great artists of ancient Greece, such as Leochares and Nikomachos.

Criterion (iii): Τhe site represents an exceptional testimony to a significant development in European civilization, at the transition from the classical city state to the imperial structure of the Hellenistic and Roman periods. This is vividly demonstrated in particular by the remarkable series of royal tombs and their rich contents.

== Integrity ==
The World Heritage property contains within its boundaries all the key attributes that convey its Outstanding Universal Value. A zone of absolute protection, prohibiting any building activity, and containing the ancient city, its cemeteries and a Bronze-Age mount, ensures its integrity. A wider protection zone, with building restrictions, ensures more the integrity of site. Aigai provides some of the most complete, whole and intact ancient monuments, such as the palace and the sanctuaries, the so-called Macedonian tombs and complete specimens of rare pieces of ancient art. The archaeological research in the city and cemeteries in combination with the restoration projects running in the Palace and the Royal Necropolis, according to the site’s master plan and the national and international standards and regulations, have multiple and positive impact for the documentation and protection of the site. The natural setting, (semi-mountainous landscape, rivers, flora), which corresponds to the ancient urban territory and the cultural remains of the Macedonian royal center, emphasizes the integrity of the property.

== Authenticity ==
The Archaeological Site of Aigai, with its artistic and architectural remains testifies its authenticity, in terms of form, materials and setting. It is generally accepted that excavation, especially of earthen structures and deposits, is necessarily an act of destruction. The original Great Tumulus is therefore no longer in existence, and has been simulated in the cover structure. The protective shelter has been constructed in order to protect and ensure the authenticity of the royal tombs. Its tumulus-shaped form and the technical specifications are in complete harmony and respect to the monuments. However, the interiors of the tombs are entirely authentic, with only minimal modern interventions in order to preserve their continued stability. Elsewhere on the site (e.g. the palace) the remains are entirely authentic.

The subterranean temple-shaped tombs are amongst the best-preserved examples on the use of colour in ancient architecture, and their discovery revealed for the first time the intact façade of an ancient Greek building. The complete and emblematic form of the royal palace, based on philosophical, political and architectural notions (archetype of peristyle palatial buildings), served in antiquity and modern times as the prototype and a visual statement of the notion of the enlightened kingship. Some of the royal tombs have been sheltered. The protection of the monuments and their natural environment as a unit ensures the authentic context of the city and its cemeteries.

== Protection and management requirements ==
The property is a serial site with two components surrounded by an extensive buffer zone. It is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs, through the Ephorate of Antiquities of Hemathia, its competent Regional Service. The Archaeological Site of Aigai is protected under the provisions of Law No. 3028/2002 on the “Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in general”. Τhe protected Archaeological Site of Aigai (Ministerial Decree 35117/2019/2.8.95) is located inside a designated area of outstanding natural beauty (Decree of the Minister of Macedonia and Thrace No. 8383/92/28.1.1993). A zone of absolute protection has been established, covering the ancient city, the necropolis, and all the surrounding area within which antiquities have been discovered, as well as a buffer zone. Development pressures to the property are addressed by the implementation of the aforementioned legal framework and the constant control of the competent Ephorate.

A complete master plan, concerning the protection, restoration, visiting and information, in order to maintain the Outstanding Universal Value of the site in the long term, is approved by the Central Archaeological Council/Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs.

The project of the restoration, implantation and embellishment of the Royal Cemetery, funded by the EU, is completed and the area is open to the public, while the same project for the Royal Palace is in progress and the monument is partly accessible to the visitors. The new building of the Multi-Centre Museum of Aigai, also funded by the EU, is already constructed, and it will be open to the public as soon as the exhibition is completed. The Archaeological Site of Aigai has an ongoing systematic excavation. Furthermore, many conservation studies, archaeometric research and architectural restoration studies have been completed for the better understanding of the monuments, as well as the dissemination of historical and archaeological data. The funding of the projects comes from national and European resources.

The cluster of the royal tombs is protected by a tumulus-shaped shelter, the present Museum of the Royal Tombs at Aigai. All the items found in the cluster, the architectural buildings, wall paintings of the tombs are displayed in a secure and controlled environment. It constitutes a particularly original example of burial monuments sheltered in a modern underground museum.

The worldwide impact of the antiquities discovered in Aigai resulted in a massive turnout of visitors, for whom special facilities have been provided. The digital museum, entitled ‘’Alexander the Great: From Aigai to Oikoumene’’, is under construction. It will be based at Aigai, the ancient capital of Macedon and it will be interactively connected with others sites, museums and institutions worldwide and create an archaeological network showing the universal value of the site.

Source : UNESCO

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Grammar/Greek-diminutives

2025-08-15T05:22:22Z

Marianth: /* DIMINUTIVE FOR FEMININE WORDS */

== DIMINUTIVES IN GREEK ==
[[File:a91c38cec53856a797b50d292652d13c.jpg|thumb|none]]
Greek diminutives are linguistic forms that convey smallness, affection, or triviality by altering the base word, commonly through suffixes like "-άκι" (aki) and "-ούλης" (oulis) -άκης (-ákis) and -άκος (-akos). For example, the Greek word for "cat" is "γάτα" (gata), and its diminutive form is "γατάκι" (gataki), meaning "kitten" or "little cat." Understanding Greek diminutives can enhance your comprehension of the subtleties and emotional nuances in the Greek language. In Greek, diminutives can be formed by adding specific suffixes to the base word.

For example, the word παιδί (paidi) meaning 'child' can become παιδάκι (paidaki) meaning 'little child' or 'child dear'.

Diminutives are not only used for people but also for objects, animals, and even names.

== Common Suffixes in Greek Diminutives. ==
Here are some of the most common suffixes used in Greek diminutives:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|'''-άκι (-áki):''' Used frequently to denote smallness or endearment, e.g., σπιτάκι (spitaki) from σπίτι (spiti) meaning 'house' into 'small house'.
'''-ούλι (-oúli):''' Another common suffix, often adding a sense of cuteness, e.g., γλυκούλι (glykoúli) from γλυκό (glykó) meaning 'sweet' into 'sweetie'.

'''-άκης (-ákis):''' Mostly used for male names, e.g., Γιωργάκης (Giorgákis) from Γιώργος (Giórgos) meaning 'little George'.

For masculine we have the following ending: '''-άκος (-akos) :'''

for example : άνθρωπος – ανθρωπάκος (ánthropos-anthropákos), δρόμος – δρομάκος :street (drómos-dromákos), κήπος – κηπάκος: garden (kípos-kipákos).
|}

== DIMINUTIVE FOR FEMININE WORDS ==
Endings: '''-ούλα, -ίτσα'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|Equally, for family members we use '''-ούλα''', e.g., αδελφή – αδελφούλα :sister (adelfí-adelfúla), μάνα – μανούλα : mother (mána-manoúla), κόρη – κορούλα : daughter(kóri-koroúla), but also for names Μαίρη – Μαιρούλα : Mary (méri-meroúla), Κατερίνα – Κατερινούλα: Catherine(katerína-katerinoúla).
|-
|As for '''-ίτσα,''' there is no specific rule. We can only say that these endings are interchangeable, but usually one version sounds better. For example, φούστα – φουστίτσα : skirt (fústa-fustítsa), κοπέλα – κοπελίτσα : girl (kopéla-kopelítsa).
|-
|
|}

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Mask-of-Agamemnon

2025-08-14T21:26:13Z

Marianth:

[[File:Athens_—_Mask_of_Agamemnon.jpg|thumb|none]]
== Mycenae Mask of Agamemnon ==
This so-called mask of Agamemnon is the best known of Schliemann's finds from the royal tombs at Mycenae. A death-mask, it was made from a thick sheet of metal hammered against a wooden background, with the details chased on later with a sharp tool. It illustrates the dignified image of a man with an oblong face, wide forehead, long fine nose and tightly closed thin lips.

The eyebrows, mustache and beard are indicated with repouss? parallel lines. Two holes near the ears were used to hold the mask in place with twine over the deceased's face.

The five gold masks discovered in Mycenae's Grave Circle A were probably made for rulers.

This one, the only mask showing a bearded man, stands out for its elegance and the intensity of the facial characteristics.

However, modern researchers and archaeologists are of the opinion that the mask dates from an era much before the life and reign of Agamemnon.

Whatever the case is, this mask is crafted out of pure gold and such masks were put on the faces of deceased kings and royal people.

According to Greek histori, Agamemnon was the son of King Atreus of Mycenae and Queen Aerope.

He was the leader of the Greeks during the Trojan War, as Mycenae was the most powerful Greek town at that time.

He was also the brother of Menelaus and the husband of Clytemnestra. Agamemnon had three daughters and one son.

One of his daughters, Iphigenia, was sacrificed to goddess Artemis so that the wind blows and the Greek ships could set sail to Troy.

When Agamemnon returned to his kingdom after the end of the Trojan War, he was murdered by his wife Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus, in revenge for the sacrifice of Iphigenia.

This golden exhibit is currently on display at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens.

This distinguished mask of gold which is about 12 inches in height is still known as the Mask of Agamemnon and is one of the most prized discoveries from the ancient Mycenaean ages.

Source > DISCOVER

{{Marianthi-Signature}}

Language/Modern-greek-1453/Culture/Mask-of-Agamemnon

2025-08-14T21:22:56Z

Marianth:

File:Athens — Mask of Agamemnon.jpg

2025-08-14T21:21:02Z

Marianth: Το αρχείο μεταφορτώθηκε με το MsUpload

Το αρχείο μεταφορτώθηκε με το MsUpload